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HE  subjects  treated  in  this  book  cover 
a  wide  range  oi  tbougbt,  and  we  present 
■ — '  tbem  in  this  form  for  tbe  convenience 
of  tbose  who  are  endeavoring  to  make  tbeir 
acres  yield  larger  and  more  profitable  returns. 
Today  tbe  farmer  is  workmg  toward  a  well- 
deiined  purpose — bis  constant  aim  is  to  do 
less  work  tbat  requires  muscle  and  brawn,  but 
more  brain  work.  He  purposes  to  purchase 
machines  that  will  do  the  drudgery  and  irk- 
some tasks  while  be  himself  solves  the  prob- 
lems of  farm  management — and  the  purpose 
of  this  book  is  to  help  the  farmer  achieve 
tbat  end. 

Issued  by  the   I  H  C    Service   Bureau 

International  Harvester  Company  of  America 

Chicago  (Incorporated)  USA 


274T73 


Contents 


Increasing  Fertility Cyril  G.  Hopkins,  5-    25 

Small  Grain  Growing        -     .-      •       -  ^ViUet  M.  Hays,  2d-   4-7 

The  Corn  Crop P.  0.  Holden,  48  -   59 

Alfalfa  Culture  in  America        -      -  Josejoh  E.  Wing,  60  -   90 

The  Wheat  Crop  -      -----  Waldo  F.  Broivn,  91-108 

Farm  Power    -------  L.  W.  Chase,  KH)  - 120 

Profitable  Hay  Making    -      -      -      -  Prof.  Thos.  Shaw,  121-140 

The  Care  and  Protection  of 

Farm  Equipment    -----  M.  B.  D.  Owings,  141-146 

Farm  Machines  and  Progress       -      -  J.  E.  Buck,  147  - 153 

Explanatory  Maps       - 154  - 160 


Increasing  Fertility 


ELEMENTS  OF  SOIL  AND  THEIR  VALUE  TO  CHOPS 
FERTILIZERS  AND  SOIL  HUILDlXd 


By  Cyril  G.  Hopkins 

Professor  of  Agronomy,  Collog.-  of  Agriculture,  University  of  liiiiioi- 


IF  he  who  made  two  blades  of  ^rass 
grow  where  only  one  grew  before  is  a 
public  benefactor,  then  he  who  reduces 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  so  that  only  one 
ear  of  corn  grows  where  two  have  been 
grown  before  is  a  public  curse. 

Agriculture  is  the  fundamental  sup- 
port of  the  American  nation,  and  soil 
fertility  is  the  absolute  support  of  agri- 
culture. 

Without  agriculture,  America  is 
nothing.  The  forest  and  the  earth 
supply  the  timber,  the  stone,  and  the  metal  to  build  and 
equip  railroad  and  factory,  and  the  fuel  to  operate  mill  and 
locomotive,  but  directly  or  indirectly  these  great  Industries 
are  absolutely  dependent  on  agriculture  for  their  continued 
existence. 

The  Two  Functions  of  the  Soil  —  The  soil  has  two  distinct 
functions  to  perform  in  crop  production:  First,  the  soil  must 
furnish  a  home  for  the  plant,  where  the  roots  can  penetrate  the 
earth  upon  which  the  plant  must  stand:  second,  the  soil  must 
furnish  plant  food,  or  nourishment,  for  the  growth,  develop- 
ment, and  maturing  of  the  plant. 

To  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  is  to  improve 
the  home  of  the  plant:  while  to  add  to  the  soil,  or  to  liberate 
from  the  soil  fertilizing  materials,  is  to  increase  the  available 
supply  of  plant  food. 

One  soil  may  furnish  an  excellent  home  for  the  plant,  but  a 
very  insufficient  supply  of  plant  food:  while  another  soil  may 
contain  abundance  of  plant  food,  but  the  physical  conditions 
(such  as  imperfect  drainage,  or  inadequate  aeration)  may  be 
such  as  to  make  an  unfit  lodging  place  for  the  plant. 

The  Six  Fsseutial  Factors  in  Crop  Production— There  are 

six  essential  and  positive  factors  in  crop  production:  (1)  the  seed. 
(2)  tlie  home  or  lodging  place,  (3)  moisture,  (4)  heat,  (5)  light,  and 


6  '  .,  •  FOE  BETTER  CROPS 

(6)' plant  Jfook.  S'dme  Ufigative  factors  are  injury  from  insects 
and  plant  diseases. 

Good  seed  is  exceedingly  important,  and  the  quality  of  the 
seed  selected  and  planted  is  largely  under  the  control  of  the 
farmer. 

By  proper  drainage,  by  the  use  of  organic  matter,  and  by 
proper  tillage,  thus  maintaining  good  physical  conditions,  the 
farmer  may  provide  a  suitable  home  for  the  plant,  remove  sur- 
plus water,  render  the  soil  more  capable  of  absorbing  and  retain- 
ing necessary  moisture,  and  control  the  temperature  to  some 
extent  by  lessening  evaporation  and  by  changing  the  color  of 
the  soil,  as  by  the  addition  of  organic  matter. 

More  than  five  times  as  much  heat  is  required  to  evaporate 
water  from  the  surface  of  the  soil  as  would  be  needed  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  same  amount  of  water  from  the  freezing 
to  the  boiling  point.  It  is  because  of  this  that  wet,  poorly 
drained  soils  are  cold.  Dark  soils  absorb  more  heat  and  conse- 
quently are  warmer  than  light  colored  soils. 

Light  is  a  factor  over  which  man  has  no  direct  or  positive 
control,  but  he  has  full  control  over  some  negative  factors, 
such  as  weeds,  which  if  allowed  to  grow  might  largely  prevent 
the  light  from  reaching  the  young  plants.  Indeed,  the  first  and 
greatest  damage  caused  by  weeds  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they 
shut  off  the  light  from  the  growing  plants.  If  the  supply  of 
moisture  or  of  plant  food  is  insufficient  for  both  the  crop  and 
the  weeds,  then  the  weeds  may  rob  the  growing  crop  of  these 
essentials  to  some  extent. 

So-called  nurse  crops,  such  as  oats  or  wheat  when  growing 
with  clover,  may  grow  so  thick  and  rank  as  to  injure  to  a  marked 
extent  the  clover,  by  shutting  out  the  light,  also  by  robbing  the 
clover  plants  of  moisture  and  plant  food.  To  avoid  these  injuries, 
or  difficulties,  the  clover  should  be  started  with  a  light  seeding 
of  wheat  or  oats  (about  one  bushel  to  the  acre)  preferably  planted 
in  drills  running  north  and  south,  which  will  permit  the  strong 
midday  light  to  reach  the  clover  plants. 

If  oats  are  seeded  as  the  nurse  crop,  they  should  be  an  early 
maturing  variety,  or,  they  may  be  pastured  off  or  cut  early  for  oat 
hay.  The  surest  method  of  obtaining  a  good  setting  of  clover  is. 
to  sow  it  without  a  nurse  crop  and  pasture  the  field  or  clip  the 
weeds  with  a  mower  if  necessary. 

The  least  understood  and  the  most  neglected  essential  factor 
in  crop  production  is  plant  food.  Food  of  required  kinds  and  in 
sufficient  quantity  is  as  necessary  for  plants  as  for  animals;  and 
it  is  even  more  important  to  provide  an  ample  and  balanced 
ration  for  corn  than  for  cattle,  because  cattle  are  usually  able  to 
move  about  and  find  some  food  for  themselves,  while  the  corn 
plants  are  stationary  and  limited  to  the  food  within  reach  of 
their  roots. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


The  Ten  Ksseutial   Plant  Food  Elements— There  are  ten 

different  elements  of  plant  food,  each  of  which  is  absolutely 
essential  to  agricultural  plants.  These  elements  are  carbon, 
hydrog-en,  oxyg-en,  nitroj^en,  phosphorus,  potassium,  calcium, 
magnesium,  iron,  and  sulphur. 

Carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  which  constitute  more  than 
90  per  cent  of  most  agricultural  plants,  are  contained  in  air  and 
water,  the  supply  being  unlimited.  The  two  elements,  iron  and 
sulphur,  although  absolutely  essential  to  plant  growth,  are 
required  in  very  small  amounts,  while  they  are  provided  by 
nature  in  practically  inexhaustible  quantities. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  five  elements,  nitrogen,  phosphorus, 
potassium,  calcium,  and  magnesium,  are  required  by  plants  in 
very  considerable  amounts,  and  soils  are  frequently  found  which 
are  so  deficient  in  one  or  more  of  these  five  elements  as  to  limit 


Tiie  old  way  was  a  disagreeable  Job 

the  yields  of  crops.  It  should  be  understood  that  soils  are  never 
found  which  are  entirely  devoid  of  these  elements.  Even  the 
poorest  and  most  unproductive  soils  still  contain  at  least  some 
small  supply  of  each  of  these  elements,  and  as  a  general  rule 
such  so-called  exhausted  soils  contain  at  least^one  and  frequently 
two  or  three  of  these  valuable  elements  in  large  amount,  the 
low  productive  capacity  being'due  to  the  deficiency  of  one  or 
two  elements  only. 

Sometimes  the  element  which  the  plant  fails  to  obtain  in 
sufiicient  quantity  for  its  normal  growth,  the  element  which 
positively  limits  the  yield  of  the  crop,  is  actually  present  in  the 
soil  in  very  large  amount.  In  such  cases  the  practice  should 
not  be  to  add  to  the  soil  more  of  this  plant  food  element,  but 
to  adopt  methods  of  soil  treatment  and  management  by  which 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


we  can  liberate  a  sufficient  amount  of  this  element  for  maximum 
profitable  crop  yields.  This  point  will  be  further  discussed  in 
the  following  pages. 

Nitrogen— The  element  nitrogen  ought  never  to  be  bought 
in  general  live-stock  or  grain  farming.  The  atmospheric  pres- 
sure is  fifteen  «pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Of  this,  about  twelve 
pounds  pressure  is  due  to  the  nitrogen  contained  in  the  air.  If 
we  compute  the  value  of  this  nitrogen  at  fifteen  cents  a  pound, 
the  price  commonly  paid  for  the  nitrogen  in  commercial  ferti- 
lizers, we  find  about  $11,000,000  worth  of  nitrogen  resting  on 
every  acre  of  the  earth's  surface. 

It  is  true  that  such  crops  as  corn,  oats,  wheat,  timothy,  cot- 
ton and  tobacco  have  no  power  to  make  any  direct  use  of  this 


A  wasteful  method  of  handling  the  manure 


atmospheric  nitrogen,  but  there  is  a  class  of  plants  known  as 
legumes,  including  such  valuable  agricultural  plants  as  red 
clover,  alsike,  alfalfa,  crimson  clover,  cow  peas,  soy  beans,  vetch, 
etc  ,  upon  the  roots  of  which  there  are  or  should  be  smajl  nodules 
or  tubercles,  varying  from  the  size  of  pin  heads  upon  clover  roots 
to  that  of  peas  upon  soy  beans,  in  which  live  great  numbers  of 
very  minute  microscopic  organisms  called  bacteria,  which  have 
power  to  take  nitrogen  from  the  air  as  it  enters  the  pores  of  the 
soil,  and  to  cause  this  free  gaseous  nitrogen  to  combine  with 
other  elements  in  suitable  form  for  plant  food  which  is  then  taken 
up  by  the  clover  or  other  legume  for  its  own  growth. 

If  the  roots  and  stubble  are  left  to  decay  in  the  ground,  the 
nitrogen  which  they  contain  becomes  available  to  succeeding 
crops  of  corn  or  other  grains  or  grasses,  but  on  land  of  moderate 
productive  power  the  soil  will  furnish  as  much  nitrogen  to  the 


FOli  lityi'TKIl  CHOI'S 


clover  crop  as  \viin)e  contained  in  Ihe  roots  and  srubble  after 
the  hay  and  seed  crops  are  harvested.  If  the  entire  le^^inne  crop 
is  plowed  under  as  ^^reen  manure,  then  all  of  the  nitroj,ren  taken 
from  the  air  is  left  in  the  soil  for  succeeding  crops. 

If  the  crops  are  fed  to  animals  provided  with  plenty  of 
absorbent  litter  or  beddin^i:,  as  straw  or  refuse  shredded  corn 
fodder,  so  that  all  liquid  excrement  is  saved,  then  about  75  per 
cent  of  t lie  nit  ro«i:en  contained  in  the  feed  may  be  returned  to 
the  land  in  the  farm  manure. 

In  very  intensive  farming,  as  in  market  gardening  near  large 
cities,  if  the  land  is  too  valuable  to  be  given  up  even  for  a  part 
of  a  year  to  the  growing  of  legumes  for  fertilizing  purposes,  tiien 
it  becomes  necessary  to  apply  nitrogen;  and  this  is  also  profit- 
able, for  the  products  of  one  acre  frequently  bring  $100  or  more 


Exposing  the  manure  to  the  elements 


for  one  season.  In  emergencies,  commercial  nitrogen,  especially 
cotton-seed  meal,  may  well  be  used  for  cotton,  because  of  its 
high  value  per  acre;  but,  as  a  rule,  farm  manure,  or  legumes  as 
green  manures,  could  be  substituted  with  greater  profit  in  the 
long  run. 

Where  it  can  be  obtained,  stable  manure  is  usually  the  most 
economical  and  satisfactory  form  in  which  to  apply  nitrogen  in 
market  gardening,  although  cotton  seed  or  cotton-seed  meal, 
dried  blood,  tankage,  sodium  nitrate,  and  ammonia  sulphate  are 
also  used  with  profit  at  times. 

Phosphorus-^ If  the  element  phosphorus  becomes  deficient 
in  the  soil,  the  total  supply  can  be  increased  only  by  making  an 
actual  application  of  some  kind  of  material  containing  phos- 
phorus. 

It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  about  three-fourths  of  the 


10  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

phosphorus  required  for  ordinary  grain  crops  is  stored  in  the 
seed  or  grain,  while  only  one-fourth  remains  in  the  straw  or 
stalks.  Consequently,  when  corn  or  wheat  is  sold  from  the  farm, 
three-fourths  of  the  phosphorus  required  to  produce  the  crop 
leaves  the  farm  in  the  grain. 

When  the  crops  are  fed  to  growing  animals  or  milch  cows,  about 
one-fourth  of  the  phosphorus  contained  in  the  feed  is  retained 
in  the  bones,  flesh,  and  milk,  while  about  three-fourths  is 
returned  in  the  manure. 

The  total  phosphorus  content  of  the  soil  on  any  given  farm 
may  be  increased  by  the  purchase  of  stable  manure,  or  by  using 
manure  made  from  purchased  feeds,  especially  from  grains  or 
other  concentrates,  as  bran,  oil  meal,  or  gluten  feed;  or  we  may 
purchase  steamed  bone  meal  from  the  stock  yards  companies  who 
buy  our  cattle,  slag  phosphate  from  the  steel  works— if  the  slag 
contains  sufficient  phosphorus  to  make  it  valuable  —  or  natural 


When  manure  is  left  in  piles,  a  large  per  cent  of  the  plant  food  is 
lost  through  evaporation  and  surface  drainage 

rock  phosphate  direct  from  the  extensive  natural  phosphate 
deposits  in  Tennessee,  South  Carolina,  or  Florida,  where  this 
mineral  is  being  mined  and  ground  in  large  amounts.  It  may 
be  noted  that  the  original  stock  of  phosphorus  naturally  in  the 
soil  is  powdered  rock  phosphate. 

Potassium  —  Potassium,  like  phosphorus,  is  a  mineral  ele- 
ment contained  in  the  soil,  and  if  the  supply  in  the  soil  is  de- 
ficient it  can  be  increased  only  by  a  direct  application  to  the  soil 
of  some  material.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  aside  from  peaty  swamp 
lands  and  some  very  sandy  lands,  the  potassium  contained  in 
most  soils  is  practically  inexhaustible.  The  average  corn  belt 
soil  of  central  and  northern  Illinois  contains  as  much  total 
potassium  per  acre  in  the  first  seven  inches  as  would  be  re- 
quired for  100  bushels  of  corn  (grain  only)  each  year  for  nineteen 
centuries. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  11 

Of  course  the  stalks,  which  are  rich  in  potassium,  should  be 
returned  to  the  soil,  either  directly  or  in  manure.  Even  if  they 
are  burned  (which  should  be  the  exception  and  not  the  ruls)  the 
potassium  remains  in  the  ash. 

Peaty  swamp  soils  are  frequently  exceedingly  deficient  in  both 
available  and  total  potassium  as  compared  with  normal  soils, 
and,  where  the  supply  of  farm  manure  is  limited,  commercial 
potassium  salts  may  be  applied  to  such  land  with  very  great 
profit.  Potassium  sulphate  and  potassium  chloride  (frequently, 
though  incorrectly,  called  muriate  of  potash)  are  the  most 
economical  and  satisfactory  commercial  potassium  fertilizers. 

Kainit  is  sometimes  used,  but  it  contains  only  10  per  cent  of 
potassium  while  potassium  sulphate  usually  contains  40  per  cent, 
and  potassium  chloride  contains  about  42  percent  of  the  element 
potassium. 

About  200  pounds  of  potassium  sulphate  or  potassium  chloride 
will  supply  sufficient  potassium  for  a  hundred-bushel  crop  of 
corn,  and  on  very  peaty  land,  where  corn  will  not  grow,  such  an 
application  is  recommended.  The  subsequent  applications  may 
be  reduced  in  accordance  with  the  amounts  of  potassium 
returned  in  the  stalks  and  in  the  farm  manure  made  from  feed- 
ing the  crop.  But  in  dealing  with  soils  of  low  productive  capac- 
ity, of  whatsoever  class,  it  must  be  remembered  that  we  must 
first  grow  large  crops  before  we  can  make  large  amounts  of 
manure,  and  if  necessary  w^e  must  always  be  ready  to  supple- 
ment our  farm  manure  with  any  needed  plant  food  if  it  can  be 
obtained  and  used  with  profit. 

Because  soils  deficient  in  potassium  are  usually  abnormal  and 
exist  only  in  restricted  areas,  this  class  of  soils  will  not  be  further 
considered  except  to  mention  in  this  connection  that  where  such 
soils  are  found,  as  in  some  swamp  regions,  then  the  addition  of 
potassium  frequently  produces  most  astonishing  increases  in 
crop  yields.  This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  results  obtained  on 
the  University  of  Illinois  soil  experiment  field  near  Momence, 
Illinois,  in  the  Kankakee  swamp  area 

Crop  Yields  in  Soil  Experiments 
Peaty  Swamp  Land  near  Momence,  Illinois 


Plant  Food  Applied 


None 

Nitrogen  . . 
Phosphorus 
Potassium.- 


Nitrogen,  phosphorus 

Nitrogen,  potassium    

Phosphorus,  potassium . 

Nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium 


1903  Corn 

Yield  per  Acre 

7  bu. 

4  bu. 

5  bu. 

73  bu. 

4  bu. 

71  bu. 

73  bu. 

67  bu. 

12  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

It  will  be  seen  that  potassium  increased  the  yield  of  corn  by 
more  than  sixty  bushels  to  the  acre.  It  should  be  understood 
that  some  soils  which  are  peaty  in  the  surface  with  a  heavier 
clayey  subsoil  witliin  reach  of  the  plow  can  be  improved  merely 
by  deep  plowing,  for  the  clayey  material  is  usually  ricli  in 
potassium.  It  sometimes  occurs  that  a  subsoil  exists  which 
contains  considerable  amounts  of  total  potassium,  but  this  may 
become  available  slowly  unless  more  actively  decaying-  organic 
matter  than  peat  is  present.  In  such  cases  even  light  applica- 
tions of  fresh  farm  manure  may  produce  an  effect  far  exceeding 
that  which  is  commonly  expected. 

Occasionally  peaty  swamp  soils,  like  other  soils,  may  contain 
some  injurious  alkali,  as  magnesium  carbonate,  in  the  sub-sur- 
face soil  in  such  amounts  as  to  prevent  corn  roots  from  living 
in  it,  and  hence  liberal  amounts  of  available  potassium  provided 
in  the  surface  soil  may  greatly  benefit  the  crop.  Deep  peat  and 
peat  underlaid  by  clean  sand  are,  as  a  rule,  deficient  in  both 
available  and  total  potassium. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  seed  or  grain  contains  only 
about  one-fourth  of  the  potassium  required  for  a  crop,  while  three- 
fourths  remains  in  the  straw  or  stalks;  also  that  animals  retain 
practically  none  of  the  potassium  consumed  in  the  food,  almost 
all  of  this  element  being  returned  in  the  solid  and  liquid  manure. 

Calcium— As  an  average,  the  normal  soils  of  central  United 
States  contain  only  one-third  as  much  calcium  as  potassium; 
while  the  average  annual  loss  of  calcium  in  drainage  waters  and 
in  crops  removed  amounts  to  five  or  six  times  as  much  as  the 
loss  of  potassium;  so  that  in  the  maintenance  of  plant  food  the 
addition  of  calcium  in  limestone  is  of  very  much  greater  impor- 
tance than  is  the  application  of  potassium  to  the  almost  inex- 
haustible supply  now  present  in  such  soils. 

Magnesium  —  The  amount  of  magnesium  required  by  crops 
is  appreciable,  but  not  nearly  so  large  as  of  the  other  four  ele- 
ments mentioned.  Magnesium  can  be  applied  most  chiiaply  and 
in  readily  available  form  by  using  dolomitic  limestone,  such  as 
is  found  in  great  abundance  at  Kankakee,  Joliet,  Eockford,  and 
many  other  places  in  northern  Illinois.  Dolomite  contains 
about  as  much  magnesium  as  calcium,  and  has  slightly  greater 
power  to  correct  soil  acidity  than  the  ordinary  high  calcium 
limestone  found  for  example  at  Quincy,  Alton,  Stolle,  Chester 
(Menard),  Anna,  and  many  other  places  in  central  and  southern 
Illinois. 

Making  Plant  Food  Available  —  It  is  an  absolute  essential 
in  agriculture  to  have  plant  food  in  the  soil.  If  it  is  not  present 
in  abundance  it  should  be  supplied  in  the  manner  that  is  most 
economical  and  profitable,  and  that  which  is  removed  in  crops 
should  be  replaced  so  far  as  practicable  and  profitable,  either  by 


FOIi  liKTTKR  CHOPS  13 

returniiif^:  it  in  farm  manure,  or  by  plowing'"  under  green  manures 
corn  stalks,  straw,  and  other  coarse  products,  and  by  adding- 
phosphate  and  limestone. 

With  a  good  supply  of  plant  food  stored  in  the  soil,  then  the 
thing  of  greatest  importance  in  the  business  of  farming  is 
the  liberation  of  sufficient  plant  food  during  the  growing  season 
to  meet  the  needs  of  maximum  profitable  crops.  While  thorough 
tillage  aids  in  this  process,  by  far  the  most  effective  and  practical 
means  within  the  farmers'  own  control  for  liberating  plant  food 
from  the  soil's  supply  or  from  insoluble  material,  as  natural  rock 
phosphate  which  may  have  been  applied,  is  decaying  vegetable 
matter. 

The  farmer  or  landowner  whose  farm  practice  includes  these 
two  points:  that  is,  (1)  plenty  of  plant  food  stored  in  the  soil,  or 
added  to  it  when  necessary,  and  (2)  plenty  of  decaying  organic 


'-si 

■1 

1 

i 

B. 

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tmmm 

^m»^m^ 

E.     ii  ilbilMH.. 

--«tiCfct                         ^ 

■ 

Si 

IBl. 

. -"' 

■^— ^'-  >.«i^i 

A  -wasteful  pra.ctice 

matter  to  liberate  plant  food  for  the  crop  needs,  will  have  in 
operation  a  system  of  agriculture  which  is  permanent. 

The  one  point  is  no  more  important  or  essential  than  the 
other.  The  man  who  tries  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  his  soil 
and  who  hopes  to  continue  to  grow  large,  profitable  grain  crops 
without  the  use  of  legume  crops  or  plowing  under  farm  manures 
or  coarse  products,  but  who  uses  high-priced  soluble  manufac- 
tured commerical  fertilizers,  is  unwise,  and  ultimately  his  land 
will  probably  follow  the  history  of  the  lands  which  have  been 
practically  ruined  by  such  practice  in  the  eastern  states. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  man,  who  thinks  the  productive 
capacity  of  the  ordinary  prairie  land  in  the  humid  regions  of 
Central  United  States  can  be  permanently  maintained  merely 
by  the  use  of  clover  in  crop  rotation,  is  also  unwise,  for  this  is 
absolutely  impossible.  So  far  as  phosphorus  and  other  minerals 
are  concerned,  the  use  of  clover  in  crop  rotation  is  one  of  our 
most  effective  means  of  liberating  those  plant  food  elements 
from  the  soil  so  that  thev  mav  be  removed  in  subsequent  grain 


J4  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

crops.  Furthermare,  clover  and  other  legumes  are  themselves 
gross  feeders  on  phosphorus,  calcium,  and  potassium. 

It  is  almost  inexplicable  that  there  are  people  who  write  and 
speak  at  great  length  and  with  great  energy  on  the  tremendous 
importance  of  adding  nitrogen  to  the  soil  as  an  element  of  plant 
food,  but  who  completely  ignore  and  even  deprecate  the  matter 
of  maintaining  in  the  soil  a  supply  of  phosphorus  from  which 
we  can  liberate  sufficient  amounts  for  large  crops. 

No  man  can  afford  to  ignore  the  truth.  If  there  are  soils 
which  contain  so  little  phosphorus  that  we  cannot  by  profitable 
means  liberate  sufficient  to  meet  the  requirements  of  large 
crops,  then  we  should  increase  the  supply;  and  every  man  should 
be  sufficiently  unprejudiced  to  ask  frankly  whether  it  is  more 
sensible  and  more  profitable  positively  to  increase  the  total  sup- 
ply of  any  element  of  plant  food  in  his  soil,  or  to  continue  to 
decrease  it  by  means  of  crop  rotation  and  the  use  of  decaying 
organic  matter. 


A  uniform  application  of  the  manure  makes  all  the  plant  food 
available 

For  the  ordinary,  strictly  live-stock  farm  from  which  only 
hogs  and  cattle  are  sold,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  reducing  the 
supply  of  potassium  if  all  liquid  and  solid  manure  is  carefully 
saved  and  returned  to  the  soil,  because,  as  before  stated,  practi- 
cally all  of  the  potassium  contained  in  the  feed  is  returned  in 
the  manure.  In  dairy  farming  a  small  amount  of  potassium 
leaves  the  farm  if  milk  is  sold. 

But  even  in  live-stock  farming  with  all  manure  saved  and 
returned  to  the  land,  we  still  lose  the  phosphorus  carried  away 
in  bones,  flesh,  and  milk,  and  this  fact  should  not  be  ignored  by 
the  farmer  whose  crop  yields  are  already  limited  because  of 
insufficient  supplies  of  phosphorus,  even  with  abundant  use  of 
decaying  organic  matter  supplied  in  clover  and  farm  manure. 
Indeed,  not  infrequently  we  find  farmers  whose  land  is  so  rich  in 
nitrogen  and  potassium  that  they  grow  great  crops  of  straw  and 
stalks,  but  the  phosphorus  is  so  limited  that  the  actual  yield  of 
grain  produced  is  only  one-half  or  two-thirds  what  it  should  be. 


FOli  JiKTTI'lIt  CROPS 


15 


Let  us  remember  that  a  balanced  ration  is  just  as  important  for 
corn  as  for  cattle,  and  that  phosphorus  is  recjuired  larg'ely  for 
the  g-rain. 

Soils  Deficient  in  Nitrogen  —  It  should  be  understood  that 
the  nitroj,ren  in  the  soil  is  measured  by  the  organic  matter,  for 
the  nitrog^en  is  practically  all  contained  in  the  org-anic  matter. 
Consequently  soils  which  are  deficient  in  organic  matter  are  also 
deficient  in  nitrogen. 

There  are  two  classes  of  soils  which  are  commonly  much  more 
deficient  in  nitrogen  than  in  other  plant  foods.  These  are  the 
very  sandy  soils  and  the  very  rolling  or  steeply  sloping  hill 
lands. 

Improving  Sandy  L.and — While  the  sandy  lands  are  not 
rich  in  phosphorus  and  potassium,  they  are  as  a  rule  moderately 
well  supplied  with  those  elements,  and  such  soils  are  so  porous 
that  they  afford  a  very  deep  feeding  range  for  the  plant  roots,  so 
that  the  actual  percentage  composition  in  mineral  plant  food 
does  not  fully  measure  the  possible  productive  capacity  of  sandy 
soils  as  compared  with  more  compact  silt  or  clay  soils. 

As  a  general  rule  if  the  three  elements,  nitrogen,  phosphorus, 
and  potassium,  be  added  separately  to  three  different  plots 
of  very  sandy  land,  the  nitrogen  will  increase  the  yield,  while 
little  or  no  increase  will  be  produced  by  either  phosphorus  or 
potassium.  After  plenty  of  nitrogen  has  been  provided,  then 
the  addition  of  potassium  will  still  further  increase  the  yield. 
Actual  results  obtained  on  the  University  of  Illinois  soil  experi- 
ment field  on  the  sandy  land  near  Green  Valley,  Illinois,  will 
serve  to  illustrate  this: 


Crop  Yields  in  Soil  Experiments 
Sandy  Soil  near  Green  Valley,  Illinois 


• 
Soil  Treatment  Applied 

1902 

Corn 

Bushels 

1903            1904 

Corn          Oats 

Bushels     Bushels 

1905 
W^heat 
Bushels 

1906 
Corn 
Bu. 

1909 
Corn 
Bu. 

Nitrogen . 

69 
30 

23 
57 

70 

65           44 
25           20 
20     !      17 
70           52 
73           55 

24 
17 
17 

27 
37 

63 
10 
8 
71 
75 

59 

Phosphorus 

13 

Potassium 

Nitrogen,  phosphorus 
Nitrogen,  potassium 

13 
65 
74 

It  will  be  noted  that  where  nitrogen  w^as  applied,  the  yield  is 
more  than  double  that  obtained  with  either  of  the  other  elements. 
Except  in  1902,  phosphorus  shows  some  effect  when  added  to 
nitrogen,  but  potassium  with  nitrogen  is  more  effective,  especially 
in  1905,  when  it  gave  a  yield  of  wheat  thirteen  bushels  higher 
than  was  obtained  with  nitrogen  alone.  It  should  be  stated, 
perhaps,  that  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  select  a  number  of 
exactly  uniform  plots  for  experimental  use  on  this  kind  of  soil 


16 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


and  small  differences  may  be  attributed  to  soil  variation,  but  the 
marked  and  uniform  effects  of  nitrogen,  and  of  nitrogen  with 
potassium,  are  characteristic  of  such  soil,  and  the  further  addition 
of  phosphorus  may  sometimes  prove  profitable. 

These  results  help  to  explain  the  marked  effect  of  farm  manure 
on  sandy  soils,  especially  when  used  for  a  crop  rotation  which 
includes  legumes.  Both  the  legumes  and  manure  will  furnish 
nitrogen,  and  the  manure  is  also  well  supplied  with  potassium, 
the  bedding  being  rich  in  potassium,  and  all  potassium  in  the 
feed  being  returned  in  the  manure.  It  may  be  noted  that  on 
very  sandy  lands  clover  does  not  grow  well,  but  either  cowpeas 
or  soy  beans  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  clover,  as  both  do  well 
on  very  sandy  soil. 

It  is  exceedingly  important  that  so  far  as  possible  all  crops 
shall  be  fed  and  the  manure  shall  be  carefully  saved  and  re- 
turned to  such  land,  not  only  for  its  plant  food  value,  but  also 
for  the  organic  matter  which  is  needed  to  improve  the  phj'sical 
condition  of  the  soil. 

Improving  Worn  Hill  Land  —  In  actual  field  experiments 
on  worn  hill  land  on  the  University  of  Illinois  soil  experiment 
field,  near  Vienna,  111.,  the  following  results  have  been  obtained 
in  a  three-year  rotation  of  wheat,  corn,  and  cowpeas.  By 
"legume"  treatment  is  meant  the  growing  of  legume  crops  or 
catch  crops,  as  cowpeas  in  the  corn,  or  after  the  wheat,  in  the 
same  season,  which  are  turned  under  for  the  nitrogen  and 
organic  matter  which  they  add  to  the  soil. 


Crop  Yields  in  Soil  Experiments 
Worn  Hill   Land   near  Vienna,  Illinois 


Soil  Treatment  Applied 


1903     I     1904         1905 
Yields    Yields    Yields 


Wheat,  Bushels  per  Acre 


None 

Legume 

Legume,  limestone. ... 

Legume,  limestone,  phosphorus . 

Legume,  limestone,  phosphorus,  potassium 


0 

7 

1 

1 

1 

10 

8 

15 

11 

18 

1 

'11 

18 
26 
30 


Corn,  Bushels  per  Acre 


None 

Legume 

Legume,  limestone 

Legume,  limestone,  phosphorus 

Legume,  limestone,  phosphorus,  potassium. 


9 

31 

5 

36 

8 

49 

7 

49 

11 

45 

38 
43 
62 
57 
57 


The  year  1903  was  a  very  poor  season  for  both  corn  and  wheat. 
It  will  be  seen  that  limestone  and  legumes  (cowpeas  or  clover) 
have  very  great  power  to  improve  this  class  of  soils. 

As  yet  the  addition  of  phosphorus  and  potassium  has  not 


FOR  iJKTTKi!  mors 


17 


increased  the  corn  yields,  althonj>-h  with  wheat,  phosphorus  has 
given  a  marked  increase  and  potassium  some  further  )i:'<i.\i\,  not- 
witlislandinj];-  the  fact  that  these  two  best  treated  plot  series 
were  naturally  slit,'htly  less  productive  than  the  other  three 
of  the  series.  With  more  org-anic  matter  the  effect  of  applied 
potassium  will  probably  disappear. 

Soils  Deficient  in  Phosphorus  —  Phosphorus  is  the  element 
of  plant  food  most  likely  to  be  deficient  in  the  common  gently 
rolling  prairie  or  upland  timber  soils  of  Central  United  States. 
as  in  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio.  Phosphorus  is  also  commonly 
found  to  be  one  of  the  most  deficient  plant  foods  in  long  culti- 
vated soils  in  eastern  and  southern  United  States. 

The  total  amount  of  phosphorus  contained  in  the  surface 
seven  inches  of  the  commonest  type  of  soil  in  the  Illinois  corn 
belt  is  no  more  than  would  be  required  for  fifty  crops  of  corn  of 
100  bushels  each,  or  for  about  seventy  such  crops  if  the  grain 
only  were  removed  from  the  land.  The  next  soil  stratum  is 
poorer  in  phosphorus  than  the  surface  soil  and  even  a  rich  sub- 
soil is  of  little  value  when  buried  beneath  a  worn-out  surface. 

The  common  so-called  worn-out  soil  of  southern  Illinois  con- 
tains but  little  more  than  half  as  much  phosphorus  as  the  corn 
belt  soil.  If  clover  failure  is  becoming  more  frequent  than 
formerly  on  Illinois  soils  it  is  one  of  the  strong  evidences  of 
insufficient  phosphorus. 

The  results  obtained  from  the  University  of  Illinois  soil 
experiment  field  near  Bloomington,  111.,  on  the  typical  slightly 
rolling  prairie  land  of  the  central  Illinois  corn  belt  will  serve  to 
demonstrate  that  phosphorus  is  the  element  which  limits  crop 
yields  on  soils  of  this  character,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
this  soil  is  valued  at  not  less  than  $150  an  acre  and  is  still  pro- 
ducing very  profitable  crops  even  for  land  of  that  valuation. 

Crop  Yields  ix  Soil  Experiments 
Typical  Corn  Belt  Prairie  Soil  near  Bloomington,  Illinois 


Plant  Food  Applied 


None 

Nitrogen  _.. 
Phosphorus 
Potassium . 


1903 

1904 

1905 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Bushels 

Bushels 

Bushels 

60 

61 

29 

60 

70 

31 

73 

73 

39 

56 

63 

33 

78 

85 

51 

59 

66 

30 

75 

70 

38 

81 

91     . 

52 

Nitrogen,  phosphorus 

Nitrogen,  potassium 

Phosphorus,  potassium 

Nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium 


Gain  for  phosphorus  when  added  to  ni- 
trogen        


18 


15 


20 


18 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  addition  of  nitrogen  or  potassium, 
separately  or  together,  produces  little  benefit  and  sometimes 
the  effect  is  a  decrease  in  yield,  although  nitrogen  did  appre- 
ciably increase  the  yield  of  oats  in  1904.  After  phosphorus  has 
been  applied,  then  nitrogen  can  be  utilized  with  marked  benefit. 

Phosphorus  produced  a  large  increase  in  each  crop  even  when 
applied  alone,  but  when  applied  after  nitrogen  the  increase  was 
exceedingly  marked,  amounting  to  18  bushels  increase  in  corn,  15, 
in  oats,  and  20  bushels  increase  in  the  yield  of  wheat.  While 
nitrogen  was  applied  in  commerical  form  (dried  blood)  in  these 
experiments,  these  results  emphasize  the  very  great  importance 
of  using  phosphorus  in  connection  with  clover  and  farm  manure 
for  improving  this  soil. 

The  use  of  commercial  nitrogen  was  discontinued  after  1905, 
but  the  addition  of  phosphorus  produced  1.07  tons  more  clover 
in  1906,  19  bushels  more  corn  in  1907,  12.2  bushels  more  corn  in 
1908,  and  10.2  bushels  more  oats  in  1909. 

The  possible  effect  of  phosphorus  on  the  clover  crop  itself 
may  be  seen  in  the  results  obtained  in  1905  on  the  University  of 
Illinois  soil  experiment  field  at  Urbana,  Illinois,  which  is  also 
situated  on  good  Illinois  prairie  soil.  By  "legume"  treatment 
is  meant  the  growing  of  a  catch  crop  of  cowpeas  or  clover  in 
the  corn  when  it  is  "laid  bv." 


Crop  Yields  in  Soil  Experiments 
Typical  Corn  Belt  Prairie  Soil,  near  Urbana,  Illinois 


Soil 
Plot 
No. 

Three  Years' 
Average  Before 

Treatment 
Corn,  Bushels 

Soil  Treatment  Applied 

1905 

Clover 

Tons  per  Acre 

^01 

60  ^ 

64 
63 
61 

61  . 

Aver. 

>     61.8 
Bu. 

None -  -  --            

1.26  ^ 

1.21 

L15 

L32 

1.21. 

202 
^03 

Legume 

None .-     .- 

Aver. 
)>    1.23 

204 

205 

Legume,  lime 

Lime . 

Tons 

206 
207 
208 
209 
210 

64  ^ 

62 

58 

61 

62. 

Aver. 
>      61.4 
Bu. 

Legume,  lime,   phosphorus  . 

Lime,  phosphorus  . 
Legume,  lime,  phos.,  potass. 

Lime,  phos.,  potass. 

Lime,  phos.,  potass. 

2.91^ 
2.91 
3.19 
3.19 
3.41  J 

Aver. 
>   3.12 

Tons 

It  will  be  seen  that  previous  to  the  beginning  of  this  soil 
treatment,  the  last  five  plots  yielded  no  more  than  the  first  five; 
but  after  four  years  of  soil  treatment,  the  yield  of  clover  was 
only  1.23  tons  without,  phosphorus,  while  3.12  tons  of  well  field- 
cured  clover  hay  were  produced  where  phosphorus  had  been 
applied.    The  effect  of  potassium  was  slight. 


rol!   lU'lTTEl!   CHOI'S 


w 


Of  course  this  increased  crop  of  clover  means  a  larger  yield 
of  corn  to  follow,  and  both  clover  and  corn  mean  more  farm 
manure  for  further  soil  improvement  or  maintenance. 

As  an  average  of  the  three  years,  1907  to  1<)0!),  plots  six  and 
seven  produced  s,eventeen  and  one-half  bushels  more  corn,  seven 
bushels  more  oats,  1720  pounds  more  clover  hay,,  and  forty-three 
pounds  more  clover  seed,  per  acre,  than  plots  four  and  five; 
these  Increases  being  due  to  the  application  of  phosphorus.  In 
the  later  years  the  use  of  limestone  is  also  producing-  profitable 
increases  on  the  older  prairie  lands  of  the  corn  belt. 

Soils  Deficient  in  Both  Phosphorus  and  Lime — Soils  on 
which  clover  can  not  be  grown  successfully  even  before  they  are 


The  w^ay  to  secure  uniform  fertilization  of  the  soil 


badly  worn  are  usually  acid  and  consequently  deficient  in  lime- 
stone, but  as  a  matter  of  fact  such  soils  are  usually  deficient  in 
both  limestone  and  phosphorus. 

The  effect  of  limestone  and  of  limestone  and  phosphorus  in 
connection  with  legume  treatment  on  the  University  of  Illinois 
soil  experiment  field  near  Odin,  Illinois,  will  serve  to  demon- 
strate the  need  of  both  limestone  and  phosphorus  on  such  soils 
as  are  commonly  called  "clay  land,"  which  refuses  to  grow 
clover. 

Wheat  Yields  in  Soil  Experiments 

Typical  Wheat  Belt  Prairie  Soil  in  "Egypt,"  near  Odin, 
Illinois 


Soil  Treatment  Applied 


None  -. 

Legume  ___ 

Legume,  limestone 

Legume,  limestone,  phosphorus 

Legume,  limestone,  phosphorus,  potassium 

Gain  for  legume,  limestone,  phosphorus  treatment 


Yield  per  Acre 

Average  of 

Eight  Years 

11  Bu. 

12  Bu. 

17  Bu. 

26  Bu. 

28  Bu. 

15  Bu. 


20  FOB  BETTER  CBOPS 

On  similar  soil  in  Wayne  county  in  southern  Illinois,  an 
experiment  tield  was  started  on  forty  acres  of  land  in  1905.  A 
four-year  rotation  of  wheat,  clover,  corn,  and  cowpeas  (or  soy 
beans)  is  practiced  on  four  ten-acre  fields,  so  that  each  crop  may 
be  represented  every  year.  Two  tons  of  ground  limestone  and 
one  ton  of  fine  ground  raw  rock  phosphate,  per  acre,  are  applied 
once  in  four  years  on  part  of  each  field,  while  no  limestone  or 
phosphate  are  applied  to  the  remainder,  which  is  cropped  and 
treated  alike  in  all  other  respects.  At  $1.25  per  ton  for  the 
limestone  and  $7.50  per  ton  for  the  phosphate,  the  cost  of  these 
materials  amounts  to  $10.00  per  acre  once  in  four  years;  whereas, 
in  1910  the  land  treated  with  limestone  and  phosphate  produced 
17  bushels  more  wheat,  2i  tons  more  clover  (in  two  cuttings),  19 
bushels  more  corn,  and  nearly  8  bushels  more  soy  beans,  per 
acre,  than  the  land  not  so  treated.  Here  is  very  satisfactory 
profit  and  positive  soil  enrichment.  Still  greater  benefit  is  ex- 
pected in  the  future,  because  hereafter  the  manure  applied  or 
the  clover  and  crop  residues  to  be  plowed  under  will  be  in 
proportion  to  the  crop  yields  of  the  previous  rotation. 

The  treatment  recommended  for  these  soils,  which  are  well 
represented  by  the  extensive  worn  "clay  lands"  in  Ohio,  Indiana, 
southern  Illinois  ("Egypt"),  and  Missouri,  is  as  follows: 

Apply  1,000  to  2,000  pounds  to  the  acre  of  finely  ground 
natural  rock  phosphate  with  as  much  organic  matter  as  possible 
(manure,  legume  crops,  etc.,)  and  plow  under,  then  apply  two 
or  three  tons  to  the  acre  of  ground  natural  limestone  and  mix 
with  the  surface  soil  in  preparing  the  seed  bed,  and  then  grow 
a  good  rotation  of  crops,  such  as  wheat,  clover,  corn,  and  cow- 
peas,  or  wheat,  clover,  wheat,  clover,  corn  and  cowpeas;  or 
corn,  cowpeas,  wheat,  meadow  and  pasture  (clover  and  timothy 
being  seeded  with  the  wheat  crop  for  two  or  three  years' 
meadow  and  pasture).  At  the  end  of  the  rotation  another 
heavy  application  of  rock  phosphate  in  connection  with  all  availa- 
ble farm  manure,  should  be  made,  preferably  to  the  pasture 
ground  and  plowed  under  for  corn. 

If  necessary,  limestone  must  be  added  occasionally  to  keep 
the  soil  sweet.  About  two  tons  per  acre  every  rotation  will  be 
sufficient.  (Blue  litmus  paper,  which  can  be  obtained  from  a 
drug  store,  if  placed  in  contact  with  the  moist  soil  for  20  min- 
utes will  be  turned  red  if  the  soil  is  sour). 

The  Value  of  Farm  Manure  —  Farm  manure  always  has 
been  and  probably  always  will  be  one  of  the  most  important  and 
abundant  materials  for  soil  improvement.  It  is  a  necessary 
product  on  every  farm  and  on  stock  farms  a  product  which 
accumulates  in  very  large  amounts.  If  not  used  for  soil  im- 
provement, it  becomes  a  worthless  nuisance  about  the  stables, 
whether  in  the  city  or  in  the  country. 


22  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

A  conservative  estimate  places  the  annual  production  of 
farm  manure  in  the  United  States  at  a  billion  tons.  The  actual 
agricultural  value  of  fresh  farm  manure  containing-  both  the 
liquid  and  solid  excrements  is  not  less  than  $2  a  ton,  whether 
the  value  is  measured  in  terms  of  plant  food  elements  actually 
contained  in  the  manure  as  determined  by  chemical  analysis  of 
the  manure  and  the  market  values  of  the  elements,  or  whether 
the  value  is  measured  by  the  actual  increase  in  crop  yields  pro- 
duced by  the  use  of  the  manure  on  ordinary  long  cultivated 
soils. 

Waste  of  Farm  Manure  and  Land  Ruin  —  If  fresh  farm 
manure  is  thrown  out  and  exposed  to  the  weather  for  six  months 
in  summer,  one-half  of  its  total  weight  of  dry  matter  is  lost,  and 
more  than  one-half  of  its  value  as  a  fertilizer  is  lost.  In  most 
newer  countries  there  is  enormous  and  shameful  if  not  wicked 
waste  of  farm  manure.  In  older  countries  it  is  the  rule  to  save 
all  possible  farm  manure  with  very  great  care,  although  this 
rule  is  too  frequently  broken  by  the  careless,  ignorant,  or  short- 
sighted. 

As  a  whole,  the  unnecessary  waste  and  loss  of  farm  manure 
which  occurs  in  the  United  States  each  year  is  equal  in  value  to 
several  times  the  value  of  all  commercial  fertilizers  used  in  this 
country.  Sometimes  the  waste  of  farm  manure  and  the  purchase 
of  commercial  fertilizers  occur  upon  the  same  farm.  In  such 
cases  the  commercial  fertilizer  used  is  usually  a  so-called  "com- 
plete" fertilizer,  containing  acid  phosphate  with  a  trace  of 
nitrogen  and  potassium  too  small  to  add  appreciably  to  its  value, 
and  it  is  commonly  applied  in  amounts  which  supply  less  plant 
food  than  the  crops  actually  remove,  the  small  amount  of  soluble 
plant  food  applied  being  supplemented  by  that  which  the  soil 
would  naturally  give  up,  together  with  what  can  be  forced  from, 
the  soil  by  the  stimulating  action  of  the  soluble  corrosive  acid 
salts  and  manufactured  land-plaster  contained  in  such  fertilizers. 

One  of  the  most  common  commercial  fertilizers  used  in  the 
United  States  contains  the  equivalent  of  two  per  cent  of  am- 
monia, eight  per  cent  of  falsely  so-called  "phosphoric  acid,"  and 
two  per  cent  of  potash,  corresponding  to  less  than  four  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  seven  pounds  of  phosphorus,  and  less  than  four 
pounds  of  potassium  in  200  pounds,  the  most  common  applica- 
tion per  acre;  whereas  a  100-bushel  crop  of  corn  removes  from 
the  soil  not  four,  but  150  pounds  of  nitrogen,  not  seven  but 
twenty-three  pounds  of  phosphorus,  and  not  four  but  seventy- 
five  pounds  of  potassium. 

Saving  Farm  Manure  — In  order  to  retain  the  full  amount 
and  full  value  of  farm  manure,  it  should  be  removed  directly 
from  the  stall  or  covered  feed  lot  and  spread  at  once  upon  the 
land.    Where  the  winters  are  moderately  cold  and  free  from. 


FOR  BETTER  CliOTS  23 

heavy  rains  there  is  little  loss  if  the  manure  is  allowed  to  accumu- 
late during  such  weather  in  a  small,  uncovered  feed  lot,  pro- 
vided it  is  hauled  out  and  spread  upon  the  land  in  the  early 
spring.  Manure  may  he  allowed  to  acL-umulate  without  much 
loss  in  deep  stalls  for  several  weeks  if  plenty  of  ahsorhent  hed- 
ding  is  used,  and  then  it  may  he  hauled  from  the  stall  directly 
to  the  field  and  spread. 

It  should  be  the  rule  never  to  handle  manure  more  than 
once.  When  taken  from  the  stable  or  feeding  shed  it  should  be 
at  once  loaded  onto  the  spreader  and  hauled  to  the  field.  If 
manure  is  produced  at  the  rate  of  two  loads  or  more  a  week,  the 
convenience  and  importance  of  taking  this  manure  directly 
from  the  stable  and  spreading  it  at  once  upon  the  field  will  cer- 
tainly justify  providing  a  manure  spreader  or  special  wagon  to 
be  used  solely  for  this  purpose. 


This  field  requires  a  heavy  application  of  manure 


lucreasing  the  Value  of  Farm  Manure  —  While  ordinarv 
fresh  farm  manure  is  w^orth  $2  a  ton  for  use  on  ordinary  soils,  its 
value  can  easily  be  increased  to  $3  a  ton  net,  by  replacing  in 
liberal  amounts  of  low-priced,  very  finely  ground,  natural  rock 
phosphate,  the  element  phosphorus,  which  the  animals  have 
extracted  from  the  feed  and  used  in  making  bone,  thus  leaving 
the  manure  poor  in  phosphorus  as  compared  with  the  crops 
grown  and  fed. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  practically  all  potassium  con- 
tained in  the  feed  is  returned  in  the  liquid  and  solid  excrements 
and  that  the  nitrogen,  which  is  in  part  retained  by  the  animal 
and  in  part  returned  in  the  manure,  can  be  fully  maintained  by 
supplementing  the  farm  manure  with  clover  grown  in  the  crop 
rotations  and  plowed  under. 

By  far  the  most  complete  and  valuable  work  ever  reported 
upon  the  subject  of  increasing  the  value  of  farm  manure  by  the 
addition  of  natural  rock  phosphate  has  been  done  by  the  Ohio 
agricultural  experiment  station  under  the  direction  of  Professor 


24  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

Charles  E.  Thorne  in  an  extensive  and  most  trustworthy  series 
of  experiments  extending-  over  a  period  of  thirteen  3ears. 

As  a  rule  for  use  on  land  which  is  deficient  in  phosphorus, 
rock  phosphate  should  be  mixed  with  average  manure  in  such 
proportions  that  at  least  250  pounds  of  rock  phosphate  per  acre 
would  be  provided  for  each  year.  Thus  for  a  four-year  rotation, 
including  corn  for  two  years,  oats  for  the  third  year  and  clover 
for  the  fourth  year,  about  1,000  pounds  of  rock  phosphate  an  acre 
should  be  applied  to  the  clover  ground  in  connection  with  all 
available  farm  manure  and  plowed  under  for  corn.  If  the  land 
is  manured  once  in  four  years  with  ten  loads  of  manure  to  the 
acre,  then  100  pounds  of  rock  phosphate  should  be  applied  with 
each  load. 

A  very  simple  and  satisfactory  method  of  applying  rock  phos- 
phate to  the  land,  which  involves  practically  no  extra  labor  or 


Manure  spreaders  on  a  Western  farm 

loss  of  time,  is  to  load  the  manure  spreader  part  full  of  manure, 
then  scatter  one  hundred  pounds  of  rock  phosphate  over  it  as 
uniformly  as  possible,  finish  loading,  and  drive  to  the  field  and 
spread  the  phosphated  manure.  This  brings  about  a  very  com- 
plete and  intimate  mixture  of  the  manure  and  rock  phosphate, 
and  this  is  exceedingly  important,  because  the  decaying  organic 
matter  must  be  in  intimate  contact  with  the  rock  phosphate  in 
order  to  liberate  the  phosphorus  for  the  use  of  the  crops.  Where 
manure  is  not  available,  more  clover  should  be  plowed  under. 

A  System  of  Permanent  Agriculture — This  practice  of 
applying  liberal  amounts  of  natural  rock  phosphate  in  connection 
with  sulllcient  clover,  or  with  all  of  the  farm  manure  which  can 
be  made  on  the  farm  from  the  hay,  straw,  and  other  coarse 
products  and  from  the  oats  or  other  low-priced  grains,  together 
with  the  use  of  a  good  rotation,  including  plenty  of  clover,  pro- 
vides for  an  absolutely  permanent  system  of  agriculture,  even 


FOR  BKTTKI!  CHOPS  23 

though  high-priced  grains  and  animal  products  are  sold  from  the 
farm.  It  is  a  system  under  which  the  land  grows  richer  and 
richer  and  more  and  more  productive  and  valuable,  instead  of 
becoming  poorer  and  less  productive,  as  has  been  the  case  with 
by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  older  cultivated  lands  in  the  United 
States. 

For  more  complete  data,  simple  discussion,  and  plain  explana- 
tion of  the  most  essential  information  the  world  affords,  relating 
to  soils  and  methods  of  soil  improvement,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  a  book  on  "Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture,*'  puV> 
lished  by  Ginn  &  Company,  of  Boston,  Massachussetts. 


Small  Grain  Growing 

MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  IIS'DUSTRY— DEVELOPMENT  OF 
NEW  VARIETIES— VARIETAL  DIFFERENCES,  ETC. 


By  Willet  M.  Hays 

Assistant  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 


Seven  Farinaceous  Small  Grains  — 

Excluding- corn,  the  big  king  of  the  cereals, 
we  have  seven  farinaceous  g-rains  which 
for  the  purpose  of  this  article  we  shall 
call  the  small  grains. 

These  with  their  respective  values  for 
1899,  as  shown  by  the  twelfth  census, 
are:  Wheat,  $370,000,000;  oats,  $217,000,000; 
barley,  $42,000,000;  rye,  $12,000,000;  rice, 
$8,000,000;  buckwheat,  $6,000,000;  while  for 
the  millets  or  non-saccharine  sorghums, 
the  value  was  not  determined. 
As  shown  by  the  figures  for  the  crop  of  1910  published  in 
December  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  the 
values  of  these  crops  had  grown,  respectively,  to  the  following: 
Wheat,  $621,000,000;  oats,  $385,000,000;  barley,  $94,000,000,  rye, 
$24,000,000;  rice,  $17,000,000;  buckwheat,  $11,000,000. 

Wheat  the  Golden  Queen  of  the  Harvests —Men  are  en- 
chanted with  the  sowing  of  wheat  seeds,  with  harvesting  the 
golden  fields  of  grain,  with  the  hum  of  the  great  threshing 
machine,  with  the  movement  of  the  great  cars  and  ships  laden 
with  the  trillions  of  berries,  with  the  burring  of  the  mighty 
mills,  with  the  mysteries  of  the  bake  oven,  and  with  the  never 
cloying  pleasures  of  white  bread  covered  with  June-yellow 
butter. 

If  a  grain  of  wheat  could  tell  the  story  of  its  brothers,  sisters, 
father,  mother,  uncles,  aunts,  and  its  other  relatives  near  and 
remote,  it  would  equal  any  fairy  tale. 

One  kind  of  berry  would  tell  of  its  origin  in  England,  another 
in  France,  another  in  Germany,  and  perchance  another  in  Russia; 
each  with  its  forl)ears  back  in  some  remote  neighborhood,  or 
may  be  in  still  another  country,  with  possibly 'a  legend  as  to  its 
unknown  wild  parentage. 

Until  in  recent  decades  the  history  of  the  varieties  of  wheat, 
and  of  the  other  cereals  is  not  of  record.  No  doubt  selection  by 
man  in  more  or  less  of  a  blundering  way  has  gone  on  for  many 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  2T 

centuries.  Hybridizing,  by  natural  agencies,  also  may  have 
occasionally  occurred  often  enough  to  aid  materially  in  making 
new  varieties  by  blending  the  good  qualities  of  two  or  more 
parent  kinds. 

Few  Varieties  in  World's  Gxeat  Wheat  Crop  —  At  present 
there  are  thousands  of  varieties  of  wheat,  most  of  which  have 
been  originated  in  recent  years  by  wheat  breeders  working  with 
more  or  less  of  system.  But  the  world's  great  crop  of  wheat  is 
nearly  all  produced  by  a  few  dozen  varieties. 

The  fingers  of  both  hands  would  enumerate  the  main  varieties; 
in  this  country,  each  of  which  spreads  over  not  more  than 
several  states. 

In  Europe  likewise  there  is  a  group  of  several  varieties  of 
wheat  which  make  the  bulk  of  the  crop.  And  it  is  so  with  the 
other  cereals — there  is  a  relatively  small  number  of  dominating 
varieties. 

Though  the  recent  great  activity  in  breeding  wheat  is 
resulting  in  originating  thousands,  if  not  tens  of  thousands  of 
new  selected  and  new  hybrid  wheats,  this  work  is  done  with 
such  care  that  only  the  relatively  few  best  will  escape  the  hands- 
of  the  experiment  station  or  other  trained  breeders. 

Small  Yield  in  America  a  National  Disgrace  —  That 
American  wheat  yields  an  average  of  less  than  fifteen  bushels 
per  acre  is  a  national  disgrace  which  can  be  cured  by  two  means: 

The  betterment  of  the  soil  conditions  under  which  the  crop 
may  yield  more. 

The  improvement  of  the  yielding  powder  of  the  varieties 
planted. 

Since  the  improvement  of  the  fields  may  be  discussed  at  once 
for  all  six  of  the  small  grains,  that  will  be  taken  up  first,  and 
the  breeding  of  each  crop  will  be  dealt  with  more  in  detail 
under  the  respective  species. 

Our  national  average  yield  of  wheat  should  be  increased  from 
fifteen  to  twentj^-five  bushels  per  acre.  By  better  preparation 
of  the  land  five  bushels  of  this  increase  can  be  gained  and  bj' 
wheat  breeding  the  other  five  bushels. 

More  Careful  Crop  Rotation  to  Pay  the  Cost — The  five 
bushels  gain  from  better  organized  field  and  farm  management 
will  probably  cost  three  dollars  annually;  and  this  must  be  paid 
by  the  grower  in  a  more  carefully  managed  scheme  of  crop 
rotation,  in  fertilizers,  and  in  cleaner  and  better  intercultural 
tillage  of  the  hoed  crops  with  which  the  wheat  alternates  in  the 
rotation. 

The  five  bushels  from  breeding  and  good  seed  will  not  cost 
ten  cents  an  acre,  and  of  this  the  national  and  state  governments- 


28 


FOR  UETTFJl  CROPS  29 

will  pay  part  for  breeding-  work  on  experiment  farms.  The  farm- 
er's part  in  obtaining  seed  of  the  new  varieties  and  in  raising, 
caring  for,  and  preparing  liis  seed  will  not  be  appreciably  greater 
than  now. 

Place  of  Grains  in  the  Rotation  — Wheat  and  Otlier  small 
grains  are  somewhat  sensitive  to  the  condition  in  whicli  tlie 
previous  crop  left  tlie  soil.  Tliey  do  not  tlirive  well  after  a  crop 
of  small  grain.  In  many  cases  they  will  yield  twenty  or  thirty 
per  cent  more  after  a  hoed  crop,  as  corn  or  potatoes,  or  after  a 
crop  of  grass,  clover,  or  alfalfa  than  after  a  small  grain  crop. 

Though  these  grains  are  benetlted  by  a  direct  application  of 
either  barn  or  commercial  fertilizer  on  poor  soils,  they  are  some- 
times injured  by  the  application  of  barn  manure  on  rich  soils. 

Generally  barnyard  manure  will  give  more  final  returns  by 
the  acre  to  the  farm  If  applied  to  a  previous  cultivated  crop  as 
corn,  or  even  to  the  grass  crop,  in  rotation;  the  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  or  other  grain  thus  receiving  the  residual  effect. 

On  new  and  other  rich  soils,  barnyard  manure  often  overdoes 
the  small  grain  crop  by  causing  it  to  grow  heavy  in  the  straw 
and  to  lodge  and  produce  light,  shrunken  grain,  though  it  helps, 
without  injuring,  the  other  crops  mentioned  which  are  grown  in 
rotation  with  wheat. 

Some  of  the  Best  Plans  of  Rotation  —  A  good  five-year 
rotation  for  grain  in  some  of  the  states  of  the  middle  northwest 
is:  first  year,  small  grain;  second  and  third  years,  meadow  and 
pasture  of  grasses  and  clovers  seeded  the  first  year  with  the 
grain;  fourth  year,  small  grain;  fifth  year,  corn,  applying  the 
manure  before  the  corn  crop;  then,  beginning  the  second  five- 
year  period,  repeat  the  rotation. 

A  four-year  rotation  found  useful  on  some  farms  is  as  follows: 
first  year,  small  grain;  second  year,  red  clover;  third  year,  small 
grain;  fourth  year,  corn;  and  repeat. 

A  three-year  rotation  as  follows  gives  splendid  conditions  for 
the  wheat  or  other  small  grain:  First  year,  small  grain;  second 
year,  red  clover;  third  year,  corn;  and  repeat. 

Small  grain  and  corn  in  a  two-year  rotation  place  the  land  in 
good  condition  for  each  crop  of  grain. 

In  the  south,  cotton  and  cowpeas  can  take  the  place  of  the 
corn  and  clover  in  a  four,  three,  or  two-year  rotation;  and  in  many 
cases  the  cowpeas  may  follow  the  winter  wheat,  making  two 
crops  in  one  year,  thus  shortening  the  rotation  by  gaining  one 
year  in  the  four  or  three-year  rotation. 

By  following  some  such  method  of  natural  farming  the  legu- 
minous crops  help  to  add  nitrogen  and  organic  substance  to  the 
soil  surface  of  weeds  and  will  provide  the  rather  well  compacted 
furrow  slice  needed  to  cause  the  small  grain  plant  to  stool  well 
and  to  thrive  throughout  its  growth. 


30  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

Other  Crops  Benefited  by  Rotation  Scheme  —  That  the 
rotation  scheme  is  not  all  to  favor  the  small  grain  crop  may  be 
shown  in  case  of  the  five-year  rotation  first  named. 

The  wheat,  by  serving  as  a  nurse  crop,  among  which  the 
newly  seeded  grass  and  clover  may  pass  their  first  unproductive 
season  without  cost,  prepares  the  land  for  the  two  crops  of 
grass.  The  grass  crops  by  cleaning,  resting,  and  enriching  the 
soil  prepare  the  land  for  a  good  crop  of  small  grain  the  fourth 
year.  The  second  crop  of  small  grain  which  may  often  be 
followed  with  a  crop  of  rye  or  turnips  sown  in  spring  to  make 
pasturage  among  the  grain  stubble  in  autumn,  furnishes  con- 
ditions under  which  the  manure  may  be  hauled  out  and  plowed 
under  in  fall,  winter,  or  spring  in  preparation  for  the  corn  crop. 
The  corn  grown  the  fifth  year  reduces  the  manure  from  too 
great  activity,  clears  the  surface  soil  of  weeds,  and  compacts 
the  furrow  slice  so  that  it  is  in  nearly  an  ideal  condition  under 
which  the  small  grain  may  be  put  in  with  shoe  or  hoe  drill  or 
broadcast  and  disked  in  or  covered  in  other  suitable  ways,  and 
the  second  series  of  five  yearly  crops  is  thus  started  out  in  good 
condition. 

Chemical  Fertilizer  Tests  Not  Expensive  —  It  is  not  ex- 
pensive to  make  trials  of  chemical  fertilizers  on  a  given  farm, 
or  on  a  given  soil  type.  Thus  a  farmer,  or  a  group  of  co-operating 
farmers,  can  easily  test  their  soils. 

Corn  is  a  splendid  crop  to  use  in  the  north,  and  corn  or  cotton 
in  the  south.  The  plots  may  be  marked  and  the  marks  preserved 
for  a  year  so  that  the  residual  effect  on  the  following  crop  of 
grain  may  be  observed,  provided  the  effect  is  recorded. 

In  making  the  trial  with  corn,  the  following  general  plan  may 
be  pursued:  Apply  to  plots  three  or  more  rows  wide  and  ten  or 
more  rods  long,  on  land  where  uniform  plots  may  be  obtained 
with  alternating  check  plots  not  manured  between,  such  amounts 
of  nitrogenous,  phosphoric,  and  potash  fertilizers  and  lime  as 
may  be  advised  by  the  agriculturist  of  your  state  experiment 
station;  and  follow  his  instructions  as  to  time  and  manner  of 
application  also. 

When  the  corn  or  cotton  is  ripe,  harvest  the  fertilized  plots 
and  the  check  plots  separately,  and  measure  or  weigh  so  as  to 
determine  whether  the  fertilizer  gave  any  additional  yield.  It 
is  wise  to  liave  one  or  two  alley  rows  between  each  two  plots, 
because  corn  roots  reach  over  across  the  row,  often  extending 
five  feet  from  the  hill. 

If  these  preliminary  trials  show  that  the  soil  is  weak  along 
any  one  line  of  plant  food,  or  needs  lime  to  correct  acidity,  the 
experiments  should  be  continued  along  that  line  to  determine 
how  much  fertilizers  to  use  and  to  which  crop  in  the  rotation  to 
apply  them. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  31 

Allotment  of  Land  lo  I'nited  StatoH  Crops  — Tliis  country 
has  about  a  billion  acres  in  farms,  half  of  which  is  improved 
land  and  half  unimproved. 

Of  the  500,000.000  acres  of  improved  land,  corn  covers  about 
100,000.000  acres  and  the  small  cereals  a  similar  amount,  while 
cottoncoversa  third  as  much  as  corn,  and  grass  lands  for  hay 
and  summer  forage  cover  two-thirds  as  much  as  corn. 

There  are  probably  200,000,000  acres  in  grass,  and  a  total  of 
300,000.000  acres  in  all  other  field,  orchard,  and  garden  crops. 

Thus  of  the  500,000,000  improved  acres  we  have  200,000.000 
acres  in  pasture  grasses,  100,000,000  in  corn,  100,000,000  in  small 
cereals,  100,000,000  acres  in  hay,  summer  forage,  potatoes,  beans, 
and  other  minor  field  crops  and  the  more  intensified  crops  of  the 
orchard  and  garden. 


EniLne  'with  disk  harro-vrs 

Cereals  from  Canada  to  the  Gulf —  Cereal  growing  extends 
from  the  Canadian  partition  fence  down  nearly  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  from  Maine  to  California,  and  our  Dominion  brethren 
grow  wheat  some  distance  northward  in  their  broad  estate, 
especially  in  the  extensive  plains  west  and  northwest  of  Winnipeg. 

In  the  Euro-Asiatic  continent  there  is  a  similar  band  of 
small  cereal  areas  which  extends  from  far  north  in  the  Scandi- 
navian peninsula  and  in  northern  Russia  down  past  the  Holy 
Land  and  even  into  elevated  regions  in  India. 

There  is  a  temperate  zonal  strip  in  the  southern  hemisphere 
also,  where  the  cereal  band  crosses  southern  South  America, 
southern  Africa,  and  southern  Australasia  and  includes  many 
Islands. 

Where  it  Pays  Best  to  Raise  Cereals— On  what  part  of 

Uncle    Sam's  estate   does  the  cultivation  of  the  small   cereals 


32  FOB  BETTER  CBOPS 

most  naturall}'  belong-  ?  Only  a  small  part  of  the  wheat,  oats, 
and  barley  should  be  grown  below  Mason  and  Dixon's  line, 
because  the  yield  is  not  sufficiently  large  to  justifj'  it  in  com- 
parison with  values  produced  by  crops  of  cotton,  corn,  rice, 
cowpeas,  and  garden  and  orchard  crops. 

Above  that  line  and  well  toward  the  Canadian  border  winter 
wheat  yields  moderate  value  to  the  acre.  It  here  holds  a  splen- 
did place  In  the  rotation,  because  it  follow^s  corn  so  well,  re- 
quires labor  at  a  time  of  year  when  other  crops  are  not  suffering, 
and  serves  as  a  nurse  crop  for  clover  and  grass  seeds  planted  to 
make  a  crop  the  following  year. 

Along  the  northern  border  and  over  in  Canada  spring  wheat 
takes  the  place  of  the  winter  wheat,  though  its  average  value 
to  the  acre  is  even  lower. 


-— ♦ 

' '  'p^  ^ 

wUJ^^'^^m^H^m^^^^^ 

I^|||jfi|||a| 

nn 

_^____ 

^^^^^^Deerj^g 

1 

HII^^H 

^^^^^^gr 

w^mi 

wpw       IQ^^^^^I 

.■!!&» 

i^^^ 

The  modern  binder 

Oats  do  not  thrive  well  so  far  south  as  does  winter  wheat, 
not  having  been  as  yet  bred  for  hot  summer  weather,  but  are 
grown  nearly  to  the  Gulf.  The  barley  zone  is  still  further  north 
than  the  oats. 

Rye  sown  in  the  autumn  is  hardy  to  the  northern  counties  of 
the  United  States  and  thrives  south  to  Mason  and  Dixon's  line. 
The  millets  and  non-saccharine  sorghums  are  grown  well  to  the 
north  and  kafflr  corn  has  an  especial  usefulness  on  the  droughty 
plains  where  it  produces  grain  with  light  rainfall. 

Great  Advance  ixi  Rice  Growing  in  America  —  Rice  on  the 
other  hand  has  a  distinctly  southern  habitat  and  is  local.  The 
rice  area  recently  has  mainly  moved  from  the  Atlantic  coast 
states  to  Louisiana  and  Texas  and  its  area  has  greatly  extended. 
Its  method  of  cultivation  too  has  radically  changed,  and  it  has 
now  come  under  America's  broad  plan  of  farming  with  machines. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


33 


Rice  has  been  made  more  plentiful  and  cheaper.  Broader  acres, 
machines,  better  varieties,  and  better  kno\vledt,'-e  of  methods 
of  cultivation  have  in  the  last  tive  years  revolutionized  rice 
growing. 

Flax  is  not  one  of  the  cereals,  but  as  it  is  grown  at  the  same 
place  in  the  rotation,  requires  the  same  preparation  of  the  soil, 
and  affects  the  land  in  much  the  same  way  as  do  the  small 
cereals,  its  cultivation  may  be  discussed  with  theirs. 

It  is  certain  that  economic  factors  have  determined  the  pres- 
ent distribution  of  the  small  cereals. 

In  Korth  Dakota,  for  example,  wheat,  oats,  flax,  barley,  and 
millet  seed  pay  better  than  corn;  therefore  the  farmers  are  con- 
strained to  grow  as  large  an  acreage  of  these  money  crops  as  is 
consistent  with  keeping  their  lands  free  of  weeds,  in  good  condi- 


.*^^^^i 

msn 

J'^SSS&I' 

mmm 

^wWr*9IWI 

Lafer-jMi 

Urn 

Hh 

''^•#.&^"., 

c.  >           r 

'  .  ^    'I     ''      ur 

VM^<.. 

Harvest  time 

tion  for  grain,  strong  in  fertility,  and  otherwise  in  condition  for 
good  crops  of  these  grains. 


Alternation  With  Fallo^v  in  Semi-arid  West  —  Out  in  the 

western  semi-arid  regions,  instead  of  rotating  the  grains  with 
corn  and  grasses  they  alternate  them  with  the  bare  fallow,  thus 
to  keep  down  weeds,  to  secure  good  mechanical  preparation  of 
the  furrow  slice,  but  especially  to  conserve  the  water  of  the 
alternate  year  so  as  to  supply  the  growing  crop  with  the  surplus 
water  of  two  years  instead  of  one. 

The  frequent  droughts,  too,  make  frequent  seeding  to  clovers 
and  grasses  uncertain,  so  that  the  plan  in  these  western-north- 
western parts  is  to  grow^  grain  for  some  years  continuously  and 
then  to  seed  to  grass  for  some  years,  possibly  injecting  one  crop 
of  corn  in  among  the  crops  of  grain. 

Thus  a  rotation  is  arranged  as  follows:    First  and  second 


34  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

years,  grain ;  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  years,  grass  and  clover  •, 
sixth  and  seventh  years,  grain ;  eighth  year,  corn ;  then  repeat 
by  eight-year  rotation  period. 

Stock  Feed  More  Profitable  in  Iowa  —  In  Iowa,  on  the 
other  hand,  where  corn,  mainly  fed  to  live  stock,  and  pastures  of 
clover  and  grasses  yield  more  value  to  the  acre,  the  grains  are 
being  crowded  down  to  a  limited  area. 

There  these  crops  are  often  chosen  because  of  the  need  of  a 
nurse  crop  to  produce  during  the  year  of  seeding,  the  timothy 
and  clover  sown  for  hay  or  pasture  in  following  seasons.  And 
though  wheat  and  flax  do  not  average  as  much  value  to  the  acre 
as  corn  and  oats,  barley  and  rye  do  not  produce  as  much  feed  value 
to  the  acre  as  corn  or  grass ;  and  though  all  these  small  grain 
crops  deplete  the  soil  more  than  crops  of  corn  or  grass,  yet  in 
limited  areas  they  round  out  the  farm  management  plan. 

If  we  can  sell  more  live  stock  products  Iowa  and  surrounding 
states  can  afford  still  further  to  reduce  the  acreage  of  these  soil 
consuming,  weed  increasing  crops,  unless  prices  for  these  com- 
modities increase.  The  world  needs  the  amount  of  cereals  now 
grown,  but  other  countries  where  labor  is  not  so  dear  are  will- 
ing to  produce  them  at  a  rather  low  price  per  acre  and  per  worker. 

Only  better  varieties  for  each  and  all  of  the  many  localities, 
better  preparation  of  soil  by  rotation,  good  cultivation,  and  cheap 
effective  fertilization  will  make  it  practicable  to  retain  our 
present  acreage. 

Handicap  in  Competition  -with  Live  Stock  —  Live  stock 
and  the  crops  they  require  are  a  paying  proposition  with  which 
grains  for  sale  must  compete.  Grains  have  two  great  handicaps— 
they  bring  in  less  money  and  they  leave  the  soil  impoverished 
instead  of  richer. 

As  a  matter  of  practical  business  most  of  the  small  grains  in 
American  agriculture  are  produced  in  connection  with  live  stock 
products.  By  alternating  them  with  the  crops  fed  to  live  stock, 
the  land  is  prepared  for  the  grains;  often  at  the  expense  of  the 
future  crops  for  live  stocks. 

From  Illinois  eastward  and  southward,  commercial  fertilizers 
are  gradually  coming  into  extensive  use,  placing  the  production 
of  these  crops  on  the  same  basis  as  that  on  which  grains  are 
grown  in  much  of  Europe.  The  use  of  commercial  fertilizers 
for  this  purpose  will  of  necessity  gradually  extend  westward, 
and  to  other  regions  where  the  lands  are  now  new. 

The  world  will  not  rapidly  change  the  proportionate  amounts 
of  cereal  and  live  stock  products  it  demands,  and  these,  the  one 
competing  with  the  other,  will  each  regulate  the  price  of  the 
other. 

The  great  cities  which  consume  the  surplus  of  these  products 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  3/i 

keep  bowling  alontr  in  their  growth  and  in  their  ever-increasing 
ability  per  capita  to  purchase  meat  as  well  as  bread. 

The  world's  most  rapid  expansion  of  acreages  of  grain  and 
live  stock  production  was  passed  during  the  earUer  years  of 
railway  and  steamship  transportation  when  the  body  of  the 
world's  great  continental  prairies  was  upturned  with  the  plow. 

The  next  expansion  of  production  will  no  doubt  be  largely 
due  to  the  better  farm  methods  and  the  better  breeds  and 
varieties  which  the  bounding  growth  of  agricultural  science  is 
ready  to  bring  forth. 

Every  Farmer  Should  Plan  His  Campaign  —  Every  farmer 
should  work  out  his  own  farm  scheme,  map  it  out  on  paper 
where  he  can  project  it  forward  ten  years  or  more  under  a  defi- 
nite rotation  system. 

When  the  ten  years  are  up,  the  record  of  yields  for  each  year 
placed  in  ten  annual  farm  maps  will  enable  him  to  average  the 
several  crops  and  determine  what  each  yielded  to  the  acre. 


In  the  -wheat  belt 

Before  that  time  his  state  experiment  station  will  probably 
have  given  him  items  of  average  cost  so  that  he  can  calculate 
the  average  cost  to  the  acre  of  each  kind  of  grain  grown  and  of 
each  kind  of  crop  fed  to  live  stock.  His  neighbors  also  will 
have  begun  more  of  system  and  many  of  their  figures  will  serve 
to  guide  his  future  operations. 

Let  the  farmer  block  out  his  farm  scheme,  submit  it  to 
farmer  friends  for  criticism,  and  finally  send  copies  to  the  pro- 
fessor of  agriculture  in  his  state  agricultural  college,  who  may 
be  able  to  give  advice  as  to  kind  of  crops  in  the  rotation;  as  to 
the  plan  of  rotation;  also  as  to  the  preparation  and  fertilization 
of  the  soil. 

Farm  Management  Developed  as  Science  —  The  agricul- 
turalists of  the  state  experiment  stations  and  of  the  national 
Department  of  Agriculture  are  seriously  taking  up  the  matter 


36  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

of  farm  management,  and  as  far  as  their  time  permits  are  ready 
to  give  advice. 

They  need  a  specific,  intelligent  statement  of  the  farmers' 
problem  and  his  point  of  view,  that  they  may  the  better  under- 
stand how  to  investigate  farm  management  in  all  its  manifold 
bearings. 

There  have  already  begun  to  appear  suggestions  on  farm  reor- 
ganization and  management,  from  a  number  of  men  who  ere 
long  will  be  regarded  as  masters  along  this  line  of  scientific 
instruction  and  advice. 

The  experiment  stations  and  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture have  begun  to  accumulate  a  valuable  body  of  knowledge 
along  this  line,  and  teachers  are  beginning  to  reduce  to  peda- 
gogic form  a  system  of  teaching  farm  management  to  be  com- 
parable with  teaching  other  lines  of  engineering  and  business 
organization. 

The  Various  Soils  Best  Suited  to  Cereals  —  The  cereals 
are  suited  to  a  wide  range  of  soils.  On  light  sandy,  leachy,  or 
drouthy  soils  these  crops  usually  make  a  crop  of  good  quality 
but  poor  in  quantity. 

The  new  durum  wheat  and  kaffir  corn  are  adapted  to  the 
drouthy  regions  of  the  semi-arid  plains;  durums  well  to  the 
north,  and  kaffir  from  Nebraska  southward  in  this  "plains 
region." 

There  are  few  soils  too  heavy  or  wet  for  the  small  cereals, 
and  rice  grows  in  soils  kept  flooded  so  much  of  the  time  that  few 
weeds  can  encumber  the  soil. 

Like  most  crops,  these  grains  are  best  suited  by  soils  which 
are  a  happy  medium  in  texture  from  being  made  up  of  coarse 
and  fine  materials  combined,  as  where  the  great  glacier,  crucible- 
like, has  left  its  mixture  of  sand  and  clay  to  the  northward  of 
the  Ohio  and  Missouri  rivers. 

Soils  Adaptable  to  the  Cereal  Crops — As  was  stated  earlier, 
these  crops  should  follow  corn,  potatoes,  or  other  hoed  cropg, 
and  the  grasses,  as  on  sods  of  timothy,  clover,  or  timothy  and 
clover  sown  together. 

The  sod  of  the  long-standing  blue  grass  pasture,  or  of  the 
long-established  alfalfa  meadow  also  suits  these  crops;  though 
if  the  soil  is  naturally  rich  and  the  season  unduly  wet,  these 
crops  are  liable  to  overgrow  in  stems  and  leaves  on  rich  land,  and 
falling  down,  or  even  continuing  too  late  their  mere  vegetative 
growth,  make  grain  of  poor  quality  and  not  large  in  quantity. 

Flax  is  less  liable  to  be  overfed,  while  the  varieties  of  oats  as 
yet  available  for  most  localities  are  peculiarly  liabla  to  lodge  and 
to  be  overdone  with  much  plant  food. 

Why  the  cereals  do  not  yield  nearly  as  well  following  cereals 
as  after  alternating  crops  mentioned,  is  not  fully  understood. 


FOR  JiKTTKR  CROPS  37 

It  is  known  that  a  specitic  bacterial  disease  of  flax  ^^ets  in  the 
soil  and  destroys  the  flax  by  the  disease  called  flax  wilt. 

Crops  Believed  to  Leave  Poison  in  Soil  —  It  is  believed 
that  some  of  these  crops  leave  in  the  soil  substances  which  are 
toxic  or  poisonous  to  the  same  plants  g-rown  the  next  year,  and 
that  this  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  the  yield  is  so  low  when  one 
of  these  crops  follows  itself,  or  even  follows  one  of  the  other  small 
grains  instead  of  following  corn,  grass,  or  clover. 

It  is  observed  by  all  that  these  crops  allow  weeds  to  ripen  and 
the  furrow  slice  to  become  full  of  weed  seeds;  especially  if  the 
stubble  is  allowed  to  stand  unplowed  for  weeks  after  the  grain 
has  been  harvested  from  over  the  weeds  theretofore  suppressed. 

Flax  grown  for  seed  is  the  worst  sinner  along  this  line,  be- 
cause its  leaves  do  not  form  a  dense  covering,  allowing  the  weeds 
free  growth,  and  because  it  is  often  so  late  in  the  ripening  that 
many  weeds  have  an  opportunity  to  mature  before  the  flax  is 
harvested. 

Winter  rye  and  winter  wheat  generally  ripen  before  many  of 
the  annual  weeds  have  had  time  to  ripen;  and  oats,  barley,  buck- 
wheat, and  millet  often  grow  so  dense  and  so  rapidly  that  the 
weeds  which  start  to  grow  are  smothered  out. 

Grain  Stubble  Should  be  Plowed  at  Once  —It  is  very  im- 
portant that  grain  stubble  in  which  no  grass  seeds  have  been 
sown,  be  disked,  or  plowed  shallow  at  once  after  the  grain  is 
harvested. 

This  prevents  most  of  the  weeds  from  ripening  and  the  land 
can  be  plowed  again  later  in  the  autumn,  or  if  corn,  potatoes,  or 
other  cultivated  crop  is  to  be  planted  there,  plowing  may  be  done 
in  the  spring.  This  plan  often  serves  w^ell  to  provide  for  dispos- 
ing of  your  barnyard  manure  in  an  effective  way. 

In  the  south  a  crop  of  crimson  clover  sowed  with  the  cereal 
and  allowed  to  develop  among  the  stubble  maybe  plowed  under 
in  the  autumn  or  the  next  spring;  or  a  crop  of  cowpeas  may  be 
sown  after  the  grain  is  harvested  in  June.  .  Wherever  the  grain 
stubble  can  be  plowed  under  early  and  a  crop  of  peas  or  other 
leguminous  crop,  or  even  corn  or  other  plant  which  produces 
much  green  matter  can  be  grown  and  plowed  under,  adding 
fresh,  active,  vegetable  matter,  humus  will  be  added  to  the 
soil. 

Feeding  Legumes  to  Stock  Best  Plan  — These  leguminous 
crops  are  valuable  as  green  manure  on  account  of  the  nitrogen 
and  the  humus-making  organic  matter  they  contain.  But  where 
they  can  be  harvested,  fed  to  live  stock,  and  half  of  these  sub- 
stances can  be  returned  to  the  soil  as  manure  dropped  in  the 
field  or  carted  from  the  barns,  that  is  generally  the  best  plan. 


38  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

Where  the  crop  is  carted  from  the  field,  nearly  half  the  nitro- 
gen and  humus-making  materials  are  left  in  the  roots  and  in  the 
bottoms  of  the  stems  and  in  the  leaves  and  other  portions  of  the 
plants  not  obtained  in  gathering  the  green  forage  or  the  field- 
dried  fodder. 

The  live  stock  secure  sufficient  toll  from  the  crop  to  pay  for 
more  than  the  one-fourth  of  the  total  manurial  value  finally  lost. 
Besides,  feeding  out  a  crop  of  forage  makes  live  stock  necessary, 
and  there  is  another  compensation  in  the  grain  which  must  be 
usually  fed  with  the  roughage,  thus  keeping  also  on  the  farm 
more  of  the  manurial  value  of  the  grains  raised  on  the  farm  or 
purchased. 

Live  stock  are  great  agencies  for  building  up  and  conserving 
soil  fertility.  When  '"the  pig  roots  off  the  mortgage,"  he  has 
also  rooted  greater  value  into  the  soil  saved  from  the  money 
lender;  and  the  cow  has  well-nigh  usurped  the  "golden  hoof  of 
the  sheep"  in  many  states  because  "she  ships  out,  in  the  form 
of  golden  butter,  sunshine  for  dollars,"  leaving  practically  all  the 
fertility  contained  in  her  food  to  be  returned  to  the  soil. 

Preparation  of  the  Grain  Crops'  Seed  Bed  —  These  grain 
crops  are  generally  good  feeders,  but  they  want  to  feed  near  the 
surface  as  well  as  deeper  down.  They  can  send  their  water- 
finding  roots  four  or  even  six  feet  deep,  but  they  know  that  the 
richest  part  of  the  soil  is  the  furrow  slice  and  they  want  that  in 
the  best  possible  condition  to  feed  in.  In  most  climates  they 
like  to  have  the  furrow  slice  a  year  old,  so  that  its  lower  half 
has  had  a  year  in  which  to  become  compact  and  well-knit 
together. 

They  like  to  have  only  the  upper  part  of  the  furrow  slice 
loose  to  easily  take  in  falling  rain  and  to  serve  as  a  dust  blanket 
or  dirt  mulch  to  retard  its  wasting  by  evaporation  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.  Fall-plowed  land  is  as  a  rule,  therefore, 
better  than  spring-plowed  land.  Corn  and  potato  fields  often 
leave  the  soil  in  excellent  condition  for  these  grains.  This  is 
true  of  fields  in  which  the  surface  was  stirred  several  times  to 
the  depth  of  two  or  three  inches  the  previous  year.  Thus  the 
lower  part  of  the  furrow  slice  is  allowed  to  become  compact,  its 
upper  part  is  kept  mellow  and  many  weed  seeds  are  brought  into 
the  sprouting  zone,  the  resulting  plants  from  which  are  at  once 
destroyed. 

Gases  of  Advantage  in  Replowing  in  Spring  —  On  very 
heavy  lands  far  to  the  north,  in  rare  cases  it  is  best  to  replow  the 
land  in  the  spring  to  prevent  its  becoming  too  dense. 

In  some  climatic  conditions  in  the  dry  plains  regions,  plowing 
in  the  spring  gives  better  yield  than  fall  plowing.  There  the 
evaporation  into  the  dry  atmosphere  is  so  rapid,  and  the  supply 
of  soil  moisture  is  so  meager  that  the  whole  depth  of  the  furrow 


FOR  nhlTTKli  ciiors 


so 


slice  is  needed  to  retard  the  loss  by  evaporation  of  water   from 
the  surface  of  the  ground. 

The  plants  can  better  give  up  having  their  roots  in  the  lower 
half  of  the  furrow  slice  and  feed  in  the  subsoil  than  do  witii  less 
water.  These  soils  are  rich  in  plant  food  to  great  depth  and  the 
conservation  of  water  instead  of  the  conservation  of  plant  food 
is  the  prime  necessity. 

Seed  Bed  Should  be  Fine  and  Smooth  —  The  immediate 
preparation  of  the  seed  bed  should  be  such  as  to  have  it  fine  and 
smooth,  that  the  seeds  may  be  placed  at  a  moderate  depth,  one 
to  two  inches  for  flax  and  millet,  and  one  and  one-half  to  three 
inches  for  the  other  grains. 

Under  dry,  late,  warm  conditions,  the  deeper  depths  should 
be  approached,  and  under  cool,  early,  wet  conditions,  the  shal- 
lower planting  should  be  made. 


Harvesting  made 


The  best  time  for  seeding  must  be  worked  out  for  each  local- 
ity. Sometimes  unusual  conditions  control,  as  where  it  is  neces- 
sary to  plant  winter  wheat  late  in  the  autumn  so  that  it  may 
escape  the  Hessian  fly.  As  a  rule,  spring  wiieat  should  be  sown 
very  early,  oats  a  little  later,  barley  still  later,  millet  not  till 
corn  planting  time,  while  flax  and  buckwheat  have  a  wide  range 
from  the  time  danger  of  frost  is  well  passed  till  in  June. 

Planting  at  Uniform  Depth  in  Moist  Soil  —  The  planting 
should  be  done  in  such  manner  that  the  seeds  are  placed  at  a 
uniform  depth  in  moist  soil  from  which  they  may  at  once  absorb 
the  necessary  moisture  to  Induce  germination,  and  to  provide  a 
water  contact  between  rootlets  and  soil  particles  through  which 
plant  food  may  at  once  go  from  soil  into  root  and  plant. 


40  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

There  has  been  great  improvement  in  machinery  for  seeding 
small  grains.  The  hoe  drill,  and  especially  the  disk  drill  and 
the  shoe  drill,  place  the  seeds  in  the  moist  bottom  of  a  freshly 
made  furrow  and  allow  the  soil  to  at  once  fall  back  as  a 
covering. 

Following  with  a  Scotch  harrow  or  other  drag  to  complete 
the  covering  is  often  an  aid  to  uniform  germination  and  insures 
the  plantlets  becoming  firmly  rooted. 

Conditions  Determine  Amount  of  Seed  —  The  amount  of 
seed  varies  greatly  with  the  openness  or  closeness  of  texture  of 
the  soil,  and  its  fertility;  also  with  the  temperature  and  rainfall, 
and  with  the  earliness  or  lateness  of  planting. 

When  conditions  such  as  dense,  moist,  cool  soil  prevail  for  a 
long  period,  inducing  the  grains  to  stool  well,  less  seed  will  be 
necessary.  On  the  other  hand,  an  open,  drouthy,  infertile  soil, 
warm  weather,  and  a  short  stooling  season,  will  make  necessary  a 
larger  amount  of  seed  for  a  full  stand  of  plants. 

Some  of  these  conditions  are  in  conflict,  as  the  inability  of  a 
soil  poor  in  fertility  to  support  a  heavy  crop. 

The  amount  of  seed  best  to  use  in  each  agricultural  district 
for  each  crop,  each  kind  of  soil,  and  each  time  of  seeding  must 
be  determined  by  formal  experiments  or  by  wide  practical 
experience  of  farmers  in  that  district. 

Since  the  farmer  cannot  predict  with  certainty  what  the 
weather  is  to  be  following  a  given  date  of  seeding,  he  must  take 
into  consideration  all  other  available  facts  and  use  his  best  judg- 
ment; not  departing  too  widely  from  what  is  known  to  be  the 
best  average  amount  of  seed  to  be  used. 

Some  General  Rules  as  to  Amount  of  Seed — About  one- 
sixth  less  seed  is  needed  when  the  drill  is  used  to  place  the  seeds 
at  a  uniform  depth  than  when  they  are  broadcast  and  placed  at 
different  depths  by  cultivating  them  in.  Only  the  average 
extremes  in  amount  of  seed  to  sow  are  given  here,  because  local 
requirements  differ  so  widely. 

They  may  be  stated  as  follows:  Wheat,  five  to  eight  pecks: 
oats,  eight  to  ten  pecks;  barley,  seven  to  nine  pecks;  rye,  seven 
to  nine  pecks;  millet,  two  to  three  pecks;  flax,  for  seed,  two  to 
three  pecks;  buckwheat,  two  to  three  pecks. 

As  a  rule  little  more  can  be  done  for  the  growing  crop  of 
closely  drilled  or  broadcast  grain  than  to  pull  out  by  hand  large 
weeds  or  such  weeds  as  wild  mustard,  the  seeds  of  which  ripen 
with  the  ripening  grain  and  re-seed  the  field. 

In  some  foreign  countries,  women  and  children  are  employed 
to  pull  out  the  weeds  and  even  to  hoe  between  the  narrow  drill 
rows  when  the  plants  are  several  inches  high.  We  are  glad  that 
our  country  has  such  high  rates  of  wages  that  this  is  impracti- 
cable; and  that  our  farming  is  on  a  broad   basis  of  machine 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  41 

farming  under  which  our  farmers  and  farm  laborers  can  get  good 
and  just  remuneration  for  their  work. 

Shocking  an  Art  to  be  Taught  by  Example— Modern  farm 
machines  liave  blocked  out  a  rapid,  easy,  and  effective  way  of 
handling  the  small  grains.  These  crops  are  practically  all  bound 
in  bundles  by  the  self-binder,  and  the  bundles  are  bunched  ready 
for  the  shocker,  who  is  the  only  man  who  needs  to  touch  the 
bundles  with  his  hands. 

Shocking  is  an  art  that  is  easily  taught  by  example,  but  not 
so  easily  described  on  paper.  Different  arrangements  of  the 
bundles  suit  different  purposes.  For  wet  grain,  or  for  quick 
drying,  that  the  grain  may  early  go  to  the  stack,  barn,  or  thresh- 
ing machine,  "two  by  two"  shocks  are  often  best.  Sometimes 
these  should  be  set  closely,  and  under  other  conditions  they 
should  be  set  open  so  as  to  give  to  the  air  the  freest  possible 
circulation. 

A  simple  round  shock  is  made  by  placing  four  bundles  in  the 
middle  and  then  placing  around  them  a  circular  row  of  com- 
pactly placed  bundles,  each  slanting  toward  the  center.  These 
bundles  should  be  firmly  set  on  the  ground,  and  unless  rapid 
drying  is  needed,  each  successive  bundle  should  be  set  compactly 
against  its  fellow  so  that  the  wind  may  not  get  a  hold  and  tear 
the  shock  to  pieces.  Generally  two  bundles  with  both  butts  and 
heads  broken  over  should  be  used  to  set  into  and  lap  over  the 
shock  so  as  to  serve  as  shingles  in  shedding  water,  and  so  placed 
that  they  will  withstand  wind  pressure. 

Fighting  Dampness  and  Weevil  from  Grain  —  As  American 
farmers  accumulate  wealth,  they  build  great  barns,  if  not  suffi- 
cient for  all  their  hay  and  unthreshed  grain,  at  least  to  store  the 
neat  grain  until  such  time  as  good  prices  or  needs  of  the  bank 
account  warrant  its  being  taken  to  market.  Only  where  the 
newly  threshed  grain  is  damp,  is  there  usually  need  of  extra 
precautions  in  storing  grain.  Then  some  means  of  drying  must 
be  employed.  Large  barn  floors  on  which  the  grain  is  spread  and 
turned  with  shovels  twice  or  oftener  daily,  to  avoid  heating,  and 
to  induce  drying,  is  often  the  most  available  method. 

In  rare  cases  grain  weevils  need  to  be  fought.  Then  the 
bisulphide  of  carbon  treatment  can  be  effectively  used,  and  your 
experiment  station  or  your  Uncle  Sam's  Agricultural  Depart- 
ment will  send  a  bulletin  for  the  asking. 

The  bisulphide  may  be  applied  directly  to  the  infested  grain 
or  seed  without  injury  to  its  edible  or  germinative  qualities  by 
spraying  or  pouring,  but  the  most  effective  manner  of  its  appli- 
cation in  moderately  tight  bins,  or  other  receptacles,  consists  in 
evaporating  the  liquid  in  shallow  dishes  or  pans  or  on  bits  of 
cloth  or  cotton  waste  distributed  about  on  the  surface  of  the 


42 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


Insects  Killed  by  Evaporation  of  Liquid — The  liquid  rap- 
idly volatilizes  and  being  heavier  than  air,  descends  and  perme- 
ates the  mass  of  grain,  killing  all  insects  and  other  vermin 
present. 

The  bisulphide  is  usually  evaporated  in  vessels  containing 
one-fourth  or  one-half  pound  each,  and  is  applied  at  the  rate  of 
a  pound  and  a  half  to  the  ton  of  grain.  In  more  open  bins  a 
larger  quantity  is  used.  For  smaller  masses  of  grain  or  other 
material  an  ounce  is  evaporated  to  every  100  pounds  of  infested 
matter. 

The  grain  is  generally  subjected  to  the  bisulphide  treament 
for  twenty-four  hours,  but  may  be  exposed  much  longer  without 
harmful  results.  Since  this  chemical  is  inflammable,  all  lights 
and  matches  should  be  kept  away  from  it. 


A  familiar  scene  at  harvest  time 


The  time  will  surely  come  when  grain  will  be  sold  for  the 
cleaned  grain,  and  then  all  the  farmers  will  be  induced  to  keep 
the  weed  seeds  and  other  foreign  matter  to  be  fed  to  live  stock 
on  the  farm  where  they  were  raised. 

During  recent  years  great  improvements  have  been  made  in 
grain  cleaning  machinery,  both  in  the  threshing  separator  and 
In  the  barn  fanning  mill.  With  one  of  the  modern  fanning  or 
grading  mills,  which  is  both  efficient  and  rapid,  the  grain  can  be 
re-cleaned  before  sale  at  no  great  cost  of  labor.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  many  threshing  separators  in  good  hands  put  only  clean 
grain  into  the  farmers'  granaries. 

The  Most  Profitable  Marketing  of  Small  Grains — It  pays 
to  market  some  small  grains  "on  lioof;"  that  is,  feed  them  to 
live  stock ;  but  the  larger  part  must  go  to  feed  the  men  and 
horses  of  the  cities,  and  to  make  linseed  oil  and  other  non-food 
.products. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  43 

As  a  rule,  farmers  market  their  grains  as  soon  as  convenient 
after  they  are  garnered,  as  most  of  the  commercial  crops  of  these 
grains  are  produced  in  the  north  temperate  zone.  This  puts  the 
bulk  of  these  commodities  on  the  market  in  our  northern  autumn 
and  early  winter. 

Since  the  purchasing  agencies  are  better  organized  than  the 
original  sellers,  the  producers,  it  is  believed  that  this  tends  to 
place  the  farmers  under  some  disadvantage  as  to  price.  The 
ability  to  prognosticate  prices  has  been  successfully  developed 
by  comparatively  few  farmers,  while  many  of  those  who  make 
trade  a  business  have  developed  a  peculiar  ability  along  this  line. 

Scientitic  investigations  are  being  made  of  the  marketing  of 
farm  products ;  and  in  some  cases  growers  have  met  combina- 
tions of  buvers  with  combinations  of  sellers.    This  brings  barter 


A  bounteous  har-«rest 

and  sale  to  a  more  equal  basis,  often  with  only  a  single  represen- 
tative, or  better,  with  a  committee,  on  either  side.  The  deal  is 
then  on  a  broad  basis  and  all  the  facts  may  be  available  to  both 
sides. 

Effect  of  Reports  and  Organization — The  development  of 
government  reports  of  crops,  of  stocks  on  hand  and  in  transit, 
and  of  demand,  and  the  organization  of  buyers  and  sellers  offers 
a  most  interesting  phase  for  study  in  our  rural  economics. 

The  world  is  becoming  more  co-operative,  even  more  sensibly 
socialistic,  using  that  word  in  its  true  sense,  than  it  has  yet 
recognized.  Farming  is  to  be  the  one  great  industry  where 
individualism  is  conserved  for  the  business  and  family  life,  and 
where  only  those  things  where  co-operation  is  necessary  and 
best,  are  given  over  as  public  or  co-operative  functions. 

Individualism    under    co-operative    organization  was   made 


44  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

possible  by  our  farmstead  scheme,  where  "  the  farm  business  and 
the  family  form  a  unit"  calculated  for  the  best  production  of 
men  and  women. 

Progress  in  Breeding  the  Small  Cereals— That  the  Ameri- 
can farmers  are  ere  long  to  have  varieties  of  grain  which  yield 
ten  or  even  twenty-five  per  cent  more  than  those  now  in  use  is 
certain. 

The  introduction  of  the  best  old  or  newly  bred  varieties, 
varieties  from  foreign  countries,  and  from  state  to  state,  and 
the  improvement  by  breeding  the  varieties  of  each  state  suiting 
them  to  each  and  every  agricultural  district,  are  proved  methods, 
capable  of  adding  $1.00  to  $3.00  per  acre  to  the  value  of  our 
100,000,000  acres  of  small  cereals. 

These  possible  hundreds  of  millions  of  increased  crops  annu- 
ally, at  a  cost  of  much  less  than  $10,000,000,  is  finally  interesting 
the  national  and  state  governments,  as  well  as  seed  firms,  also  a 
larger  number  of  private  breeders  of  field  crops. 

The  introduction  of  durum  or  macaroni  wheats  to  the  semi- 
arid  lands  of  the  great  west  has  made  possible  tens  of  millions  of 
added  crop,  and  the  cost  has  been  very  slight.  These  durum 
varieties  are  now  serving  as  bases  on  which  plant  breeders  at 
various  experiment  stations  are  building  better  varieties  by  the 
art  of  selective  breeding,  and  by  breeding  by  hybridization  fol- 
lowed by  selection. 

Notable  Increase  by  Spring  Wheat  Breeding —  Some  of  the 
spring  wheats  have  already  been  bred  so  as  to  yield  fifteen  and 
eighteen  per  cent  more  grain  on  millions  of  acres  upon  which 
rapidly  spreading  varieties  from  the  Minnesota  experiment 
station  are  now  grown. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  is  co-operating 
with  a  number  of  state  experiment  stations,  and  new  selected 
and  new  hybrid  pure-bred  varieties  of  each  of  the  small  grains 
are  being  originated  by  the  tens  of  thousands. , 

On  one  experiment  farm  alone  2,000  new  hybrid  winter  wheats 
have  been  originated.  It  is  believed  that  at  least  a  few  of  these 
new  sorts  will  be  as  hardy  as  rye,  and  will  extend  the  winter 
wheat  zone  to  the  Manitoba  boundary,  thus  greatly  increasing 
the  yield. 

Continuous  Snow  Makes  Large  Crops  —  When  tlie  winters 
are  such  that  snow  covers  the  ground  during  the  winter  season, 
winter  wheats  yield  thirty  to  fifty  per  cent  more  than  do  spring 
varieties.  The  combined  autumn  and  spring  cool  periods  greatly 
extend  the  stooling  period,  and  besides,  winter  wheats,  by  ripen- 
ing earlier,  escape  much  of  the  bad  effectsof  the  hot,  dry  summer 
weather  and  much  of  the  ravages  of  insects,  and  especially  of 
wheat  rust. 


46  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

A  new  variety  of  flax,  named  Primost,or  "Minnesota  No.  25," 
has  been  supplied  to  the  farmers  under  co-operative  plant  breed- 
ing work  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
the  Minnesota  experiment  station,  which  yielded  15  bushels  to 
the  acre,  as  compared  with  11.9  bushels  of  common  flax  grown 
under  the  same  conditions.  This  gain  of  3.1  bushels  per  acre  or 
of  26  per  cent  is  worth  several  dollars  an  acre.  The  breeding  of 
this  new  variety  did  not  cost  more  than  one  thousand  dollars. 

Other  new  varieties  of  each  species  of  the  small  grains,  which 
are  now  incubating  on  various  experiment  farms,  will  rapidly 
come  forward,  and  all  farmers  should  be  ready  to  buy  as  each  new 
and  thoroughly  tested  and  authenticated  variety  is  brought 
forward  by  these  public  institutions. 

Scientific  Method  of  Breeding  Cereals— Methods  of 
breeding  the  several  kinds  of  cereal  crops  are  being  worked  out 
in  the  most  scientific  and  practicable  manner  and  resulting 
therefrom,  many  new  varieties,  which  add  10  to  25  per  cent  and 
even  more  to  the  yield  of  these  crops,  are  coming  forward  for 
general  distribution  to  farmers. 

The  best  varieties  of  a  given  grain  are  obtained  by  an  experi- 
ment station  and  are  tested  in  field  plots  as  to  their  yields  and 
the  quality  of  grain.  Those  which  are  manufactured  are  also 
tested  in  the  mill,  and  wheat  and  rye  are  tested  in  the  labora- 
tory as  to  their  bread  making  qualities. 

When  field  and  laboratory  tests  show  that  a  given  variety 
has  superiority  in  its  power  to  produce  values  per  acre,  it  is 
planted  in  the  field  preparatory  to  its  serving  as  a  basis  for 
breeding.  Often  the  best  variety  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  breed- 
ing is  one  already  commonly  grown.  The  plant  breeder  now 
selects  from  as  many  heads,  say  5000  seeds,  and  plants  them  in  a 
short  row.  When  the  wheat  is  ripe,  the  plant  breeder  selects 
from  these  rows  those  stalks  which  show  superiority,  usually 
throwing  away  all  but  ten  per  cent  of  the  whole.  Grain  to  be 
planted  the  next  year  is  harvested  from  each  of  those  stalks 
reserved  during  the  head-to-row  test. 

The  next  year  three  or  more  drill  rows  one  rod  long,  or  hill 
rows  one  rod  long,  or  possibly  rectangular  plots  are  planted;  or 
perchance,  all  three  of  these  plot  tests  are  used.  A  comparison 
of  the  plots  is  made  on  the  basis  of  both  yield  and  quality  of 
the  grain.  All  of  the  least  desirable  stocks  are  discarded. 
Seeds  are  saved  and  similar  plot  tests  are  made  the  next  year. 
Usually  from  this  large  number  of  mother  plants  a  small  number 
of  exceedingly  large  yielding  varieties  are  thus  discovered. 

The  five,  ten,  or  more,  most  promising  varieties  are  now  taken 
to  field  tests,  where  they  are  grown  in  a  field  way,  usually  for 
three  years,  two  or  three  duplicate  plots  being  grown  each  year. 
Any  variety  which  is  outstanding  in   its  promised  value   per 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  47 

acre  is  at  once  taken  to  the  fields  and  multiplied  as  rapidly  as 
may  be  for  its  early  distribution  to  growers. 

Wliile  increasing  the  seeds  of  tiie  promising  new  variety  it  is 
also  sent  to  other  experiment  stations  and  branch  stations  of 
the  region  where  it  is  likely  to  prove  valuable,  that  it  may 
there  be  tested  also.  By  the  time  the  variety  has  been  increased 
to  some  thousands  of  bushels  for  distribution  to  growers  of 
pure  bred  seeds  the  general  facts  are  known  as  to  its  yield  at 
experiment  stations  of  various  regions,  and  if  it  be  a  wheat,  its 
milling  and  baking  qualities  can  also  have  been  determined 
on  a  practical  scale. 

Class  of  Pure-Bred  Seed  Growers  Needed  — For  rapidly 
distributing  the  many  valuable  new  forthcoming  varieties  of 
field  crops,  that  they  may  quickly  replace  poorer  kinds,  and  that 
they  may  be  kept  pure  from  diseases  and  clean  of  weed  seeds, 
there  needs  to  be  developed  a  class  of  pure-bred  seed  grower3,  as 
we  have  now  growers  of  pure-bred  live  stock. 


Shocking  -nrheai 

In  some  states  the  experiment  stations  select  the  men  to 
whom  they  will  sell  at  a  good  price  their  valuable  new^  creations, 
that  every  county  and  every  neighborhood  may  liave  the  seeds 
grown  for  them  near  home  and  at  a  fair,  though  prolitable  price. 

In  some  cases  these  growers  of  pure-bred  seeds  have  formed 
state  seed  growers'  associations.  This  plan  of  distribution  of  new 
varieties  helps  to  give  to  growers  of  valuable  seeds  that  added 
profit,  and  induces  them  carefully  to  produce  and  market  the 
needed  large  amounts  of  each  valuable  new  kind  of  seeds,  so  that  all 
will  grow  these  instead  of  the  old-fashioned,  poor  yielding  kinds. 

American  grain  growing  is  looking  up  because  it  is  fast  be- 
coming a  part  of  general  farming,  because  the  fields  are  being 
better  prepared  for  grain,  and  because  science  is  making  vast 
improvements  in  machinery,  in  methods  of  cultivation,  and  in 
transportation,  and,  especially,  in  the  inherited  power  of  the 
varieties  of  grain  themselves. 


The   Corn  Crop 


By  p.  G.  Holden 

Superintendent  Agricultural  Extension  Department,  Iowa  Agricultural  Ci-llege, 
Ames,  Iowa 


"More  corn  of  better  quality  on  every 
acre  of  ground"  is  the  motto  of  every 
corn-grower  in  Iowa.     Let  us  each  strive 
.^^^     j^Hl  ^^  grow  more  and  better  com  this  year 

T^    ..^SBr  than  we  did  last.    This  is  the  secret  of 

success.  This  will  make  us  love  our  work. 
Drudgery  is  work  without  thought,  with- 
out interest,  without  love  for  it.  "The 
man  who  can  make  two  ears  of  corn,  or 
two  blades  of  grass,  grow  on  the  spot 
where  only  one  grew  before,  would  de- 
serve better  of  mankind  and  render  more 
essential  service  to  the  country  than  the  whole  race  of  politicians 
put  together." 

The  average  yield  of  corn  in  the  United  States  today  is  about 
25  bushels  per  acre.  It  can  be  increased  to  30,  then  to  35,  and 
ultimately  to  50. 

To  produce  a  good  crop  of  corn  we  must  have  good  land,  good 
seed,  good  preparation  of  the  ground  and  care  of  the  crop,  a  good 
season,  and  last  but  by  no  means  least,  a  good  man.  Important 
as  these  things  are,  I  must  omit  from  this  short  discussion  all 
of  them  except  the  question  of  good  seed. 

If  I  owned  the  farms  of  the  United  States  and  could  give  but 
four  orders  regarding  corn,  those  orders  would  be  as  follows : 

1.  That  every  ear  of  corn  intended  for  planting  be  tested, 
that  is,  not  less  than  six  kernels  (better  ten)  be  taken  from  each 
ear  and  sprouted  and  all  weak  and  bad  ears  discarded. 

2.  That  every  ear  intended  for  planting  be  harvested  before 
the  fall  freezes,  and  properly  preserved. 

3.  That  the  corn  be  graded  and  the  planter  tested  and  made 
ready  to  drop  the  proper  number  of  kernels. 

4.  That  the  corn  be  improved  by  selecting,' for  the  average 
farm,  say,  100  of  the  best  ears  and  planting  them  on  one  side  of 
the  corn  field  The  seed  for  the  following  crop  to  be  selected  in 
the  fall  from  the  part  of  the  field  where  the  best  seed  was 
planted. 

Notice  that  all  of  these  are  things  which  can  be  done  by  every 
one  ;  that  they  cost  practically  nothing  except  a  little  time  and 

48 


FUR  BETTER  CROPS 


4i) 


work;  that  no  loss  can  possibly  come  to  any  one  from  i)ro|)erly 
testing,  harvesting,  grading,  and  improving  his  seed. 

It  is  difficult  for  us  to  comprehend  the  enormous  wealth 
which  would  be  added  to  the  United  States  if  these  four  orders 
were  carried  out  by  every  farmer;  and  let  me  again  add  that 


A  Champion  ear  of  corn 

they  can  be  carried  out  by  every  one  and  at  practically   no 
increased  expense. 

To  Illustrate :  1  presume  that  there  is  hardly  a  person  in 
low^a  but  will  agree  with  me  that  if  every  ear  of  seed  corn 
had  been  tested  this  spring  before  planting  and  the  weak  and 
bad  ears  discarded  so  that  nothing  but  strong  seed  was  planted, 
it  would  have  added  on  the  average  not  less  than  10  bushels  per 
acre  to  the  crop.  In  one  average  county  of  Iowa  with  90,0(X) 
acres  planted  to  corn  annually,  there  would  be  an  increase  of 


Plate  No.  1 

From  each  of  the  remaining  ears  remove  2  or  3  kernels.  Examine 
these  kernels  and  discard  those  ears  -which  have  poor  kernels  and 
thus  save  the  ■w'ork  of  testing  ears  M^hich  sho-»v  from  appearance  that 
they  are  not  fit  to  plant. 


900,000  bushels  worth  $450,000.    And  there  are  99  counties,  each 
growing  an  average  of  90,000  acres  of  corn. 

It  is  true  that  the  seed  this  year  was  much  worse  tlian  usual 
owing  to  the  sappy  condition  of  the  corn  last  fall,  the  early 
freezes,  and  the  unusually  severe  w^inter  weather:  but  I  am  per- 
fectly safe  in  saying  that  the  annual  average  yield  for  Iowa  could 


50 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


be  increased  10  bushels  per  acre,  if  the  four  orders  given  above 
were  carried  out  on  every  farm 

Testing  Every  Ear  of  Corn — There  are  two  fundamental 
reasons  for  testing  each  ear. 

1.  It  enables  us  to  discard  those  ears  which  have  been  weak- 
ened or  killed  by  freezing,  mould,  or  premature  sprouting  in 
the  fall. 


Ten  champion  ears  of  corn 

2.  It  enables  us  to  discover  the  scrubs  or  runts  and  discard 
them.  Let  me  here  caution  you  against  the  delusion  which 
some  men  have  that  they  can  tell  whether  or  not  corn  will  grow 
by  just  looking  at  it  or  knifing  it. 


Plate  No.  2 

Putting  the  kernels  in  the  germination  box  from  ear  No.  1  in  square 
No.   1.     From  ear  No.  2  in  square  No.  2,  and  so  on. 


How  to  Make  the  Test  —  Lay  out  the  seed  ears  side  by  side 
on  tables  or  planks  arranged  for  the  purpose.  Go  over  these 
carefully  and  discard  the  poorer  ears.  From  each  of  the  remain- 
ing ears  remove  two  or  three   kernels  with   a   pocket  knife, 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


51 


Kar    No.    'Z    sliow^s    space    between    the    kernels    next    to    the    cob. 
£ar  ISo.   1   is  especially  stronii,  showinti  i^ood  coiiHtltution. 


Plate  No.  3 

(See  kernels  from  these  two  ears  in  Plates  Nos.  4  and  5  on  follow- 
ing page.) 


placing  them  at  the  butt  or  tip  of  their  respective  ears.     From 
a  study  of  these  kernels  3'ou  will  be  able  to  discard  man}-  more 


52 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


ears,  some  or  all  of  whose  kernels  are  mouldy,  frozen,  barren, 
immature,  or  are  too  shallow  or  too  deep,  too  wide  or  too  narrow, 
or  whose  germs  are  small,  indicating  poor  feeding  value,  weak 
constitution,  etc. 


Plate  No.  4 

The  kernels  in  the  top  row  in  Plate  No.  4  are  taken  from  ear 
No.  2  shown  on  the  preceding  page,  Plate  No.  3,  and  those  in  the 
bottom  ro-w^  are  taken  from  ear  No.  1. 

The  remaining  ears  should  now  be  arranged  on  the  planks 
side  by  side  for  the  final  germination  test.     Remove  not  less  than 


IIIAAAIIMliI 


Plate  No.  5 

The  lo-wer  row  of  kernels  in  Plate  No.  5  is  from  ear  No.  1,  Plate 
No.  3  shoM^n  on  the  preceding  page,  and  the  kernels  in  the  upper  ro>v- 
are  from  ear  No.  2.  Judging  from  out>vard  appearances  of  the  ear, 
little  or  no  difference  in  their  values  could  be  discovered.  The  ears 
from  which  these  two  tows  were  taken  -were  almost  exactly  of  the 
same  size,  yet  ear  No.  1  (see  Plate  No.  3)  -weighed  16  per  cent  more 
than  ear  No.  2  and  shelled  out  20/4  per  cent  more  corn  than  ear 
No.  2.  Ear  No.  2  is  not  only  very  much  poorer  in  feeding  value  than 
No.   1   but  has    a  much   low^er  vitality  and  M^ould   give  a  >veaker   plant. 


six,  better  ten,  kernels  from  each  ear  and  place  them  in  the 
germination  box  to  sprout.  The  places  or  squares  for  the 
kernels  in  the  box  should  be  numbered  to  correspond  to  the 
number  of  the  ear  from  which  the  kernels   were  taken.    This 


yon  BKTTEit  ciiors 


53 


will  enable  us  to  discard  those  ears  whose  kernels  in  the  box  fail 
to  grow  or  show  only  weak  sprouts.    Think  for  a  moment  what 


Plate  No.  6 


Seeds  in  germination  box: 


it  means  to  use  one  bad  ear  for  seed:  .  900  missino^  places,  equal 
to  300  hills.  — on  an  acre,  not  less  than  4  bushels  of  corn.     It 


54 


FOB  BETTER  CROPS 


means  wasted  land  and  wasted  labor.  Then,  too,  the  weak  and 
sickly  sprouts  will  betray  many  other  ears  which  are  really 
scrubs  and  can  be  discarded,  ears  which  yield  10,  20,  and  some- 
times 30  bushels  less  per  acre  than  others. 

It  is  certain  that  not  less  than  100,000  farmers  tested  every  ear 
of  seed  they  planted  this  spring-  in  Iowa.  Every  farmer  who 
grows  corn,  whether  he  lives  in  the  north  or  south,  in  the  east 
or  west,  should  test  each  ear  to  be  planted.  It  is  proverbial  that 
a  "runt  pig"  is  always  a  "runt  pig."  In  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence he  is  at  a  disadvantage  at  every  turn.  He  is  crowded  from 
his  comfortable  sleeping  place  and  rooted  out  of  the  feed  trough. 
So  it  is  with  the  800  or  900  weaklings  from  an  ear.  They  are,  in 
reality,  runts,  scattered  there  and  here  throughout  the  field,  and 
robbed  of  plant  food,  moisture,  and  light,  by  their  more  vigorous 
growing  brothers. 


Plate  No.  7 

Often  they  are  barren;  i.  e.,  produce  no  ears,  but  these  stalks 
do  produce  tassels  with  millions  of  pollen  grains  which  drift  over 
the  field  and  fertilize  the  ears  of  the  good  stalks.  In  other  words, 
these  barren  stalks  become  the  fathers  of  millions  of  kernels  of 
corn  in  the  field,  thus  perpetuating  their  own  weakness.  Re- 
member that  you  cannot  injure  the  seed  by  testing  it.  You 
cannot  possibly  lose.  It  costs  nothing  but  a  little  time  and 
labor.  This  work  can  and  should  be  done  in  the  winter  before 
the  spring  work  opens  up.  In  this  way  none  of  the  other  farm 
work  is  neglected. 


How  to  Make  the  Germination  Box — One  of  the  simplest 
and  best  methods  for  testing  each  ear  of  corn  is  by  the  use  of 
what  is  known  as  the  sawdust  germination  box. 

Make  a  box  3  inches  deep  and  30  x  30  inches  in  size;  fill  it 
about  half  full  with  moist  sawdust  and  tamp  firmly  with  a  brick. 
Rule  off  a  piece  of  good  white  cloth  (sheeting)  into  squares 
2\  X  2^  inches  each  way,  checker  board  fashion,  and  number  the 
squares  1,  2,  3,  etc.    Place  this  cloth,  which  should  be  the  size 


FOR  BKTTKR  CHOPS 


55 


of  the  ^germination  box,  on  the  sawdust  and  tack  it  to  the  sides 
and  ends  of  the  box.  Lay  the  ears  of  corn  to  be  tested  side  by 
side  on  the  floor  or  table.  Remove  six  kernels  from  six  different 
places  in  ear  Ko.  1  and  place  them  in  square  No.  1  in  the  porini- 
nation  box  g-erm  side  up  and  crown  pointing-  from  you.  Then 
remove  six  kernels  in  a  like  manner  from  ear  No.  2  and  place  in 
square  No.  2  in  the  germination  box,  and  so  on.  When  the 
squares  in  the  germination  box  are  all  lilled,  lay  a  piece  of  good 
cloth  over  the  kernels  and 
dampen  by  sprinkling  t 
water  over  it.  Place  over 
this,  a  cloth  considerably 
larger  than  the  box  and 
fill  the  box  wuth  moist 
sawdust,  tamp  with  a 
brick  or  board  or  tread  on 
it  with  your  feet  until 
firmly  packed  on  top  of 
the  corn.  Keep  the  box 
in  a  place  where  it  will 
not  freeze;  raise  the  upper 
side  of  the  box  or  the 
side  toward  which  the 
crowns  of  the  kernels 
point,  3  or  4  inches;  the 
stem  sprouts  will  then 
grow  up  and  the  root 
sprouts  down,  thus  mak- 
ing it  much  easier  to  read 
the  test.  It  requires  about 
eight  days  for  the  corn  to 
germinate.  At  the  end  of 
that  time  roll  back  and 
remove  the  cloth  contain- 
ing the  top  layer  of  saw- 
dust. Now  remove  the 
second  cloth  as  carefully 
as  possible   and    examine 


Plate  No.  8 


the  six  sprouted  kernels  in  each  square.  The  box  when  com- 
pleted and  set  away  for  germination  may  be  described  briefly 
as  follows:  Two  inches  of  sawdust  packed  firmly  in  the  bottom 
of  the  box.  On  this  is  laid  the  cloth  ruled  off  in  squares,  then 
the  kernels  laid  in  the  squares,  a  second  cloth  spread  on  the 
kernels  and  dampened,  then  a  third  cloth  much  larger  than  the 
box,  on  which  is  placed  2  inches  more  of  damp  sawdust  packed 
firmly.  The  edges  of  the  larger  cloth  may  be  folded  over  on  the 
top  of  the  sawdust. 

Barren  Stalks— Of  the  five  stalksin  the  twohillsshown,  onlv 


56 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


one  produced  a  good  ear.  l^ote  how  weak  and  sickly  the  non- 
productive stalks  are  compared  with  the  productive  one.  Barren- 
ness is  one  of  the  greatest  sources  of  loss  in  corn  growing.  To 
the  farmer  who  grows  corn  for  the  grain   alone  these  barren 


Plate  No.  9 

Product  of  a  single  hill 

If  M-e  could  locate  all  the  stalks  in  the  field  -w'hich  spring  from  the 
brothers  of  the  kernel  that  produced  No.  2  we  i^hould  find  that  the 
ftreat  majority  of  them  -^vere  ears,  on  an  average,  as  good  as  it  is.  The 
same  thing  would  hold  true  in  the  case  of  the  parents  of  Nos.  3  and  1. 
This  would  lead  us  to  the  conclusion  that  the  difference  in  these 
three  ears  is  due  to  the  difference  in  the  producing  power  of  their 
parents. 

stalks  are  worse  than  a  complete  loss.  They  not  only  deprive 
the  productive  stalks  of  food,  moisture  and  light,  but  they 
produce  pollen  which  fertilizes  the  silks  of  the  good  stalks  and 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


so  reduce  the  vigor  and  future  producing-  power  of  many  of 
the  good  ears,    Nubbins  are  simply  a  mild  form  of  barrenness. 

This  subject  of  barren  stalks  is  very  closely  related  to  tiiat  of 
"The  Product  of  a  Single  Hill.''    (See  IMate  9.) 

The  illustration  on  page  50  shows  the  class  of  stalks  wiiich  pro- 
duce the  nubbins,  or  what  is  worse,  nothing  at  all.  The  unpro- 
ductive stalks  in  these  two  hills  have  hundreds  of  brothers 
scattered  here  and  there  throughout  the  field  wherever  the 
kernels  from  the  ear  that  produced  them  were  planted.  Some 
of  these  brothers  of  course  bore  something,  but  a  large  per  cent 
of  the  plants  that  came  from  the  ear  would  be  about  like  four  of 
those  in  this  cut— worse  than  nothing. 

'  On  the  other  hand  the  stalks  bearing  the  good  ear  would  have 
hundreds  of  brothers  throughout  the  field,  wliich  came  from  the 
same  good  ear  as  itself,  bearing — not  nubbins  or  nothing  at  all 
as  these  others  are  doing— but  strong,  vigorous  stalks  producing 
in  turn,  a  large  percentage  of  good  vigorous  ears. 

Important  Things  to  be  Remembered — Soak  the  sawdust 
at  least  two  hours— better  if  it  is  soaked  overnight  by  putting  it 
in  a  gunny-sack  and  setting  this  in  a  tab  of  water.  This  water 
should  be  turned  off  in  the  morning  and  replaced  with  hot  or 
warm  water  so  that  the  sawdust^  when  put  into  the  box,  will 
be  thoroughly  warmed.  The  two  inches  of  sawdust  placed  on 
top  of  the  corn  should  also  be  thoroughly  warmed.  When  the 
sack  of  sawdust  is  lifted  out  of  the  warm  water  it  should  be 

placed  where  the  surplus  water  can  drain  out  of  it:  better get 

up  on  the  sack  and  tread  it  with  the  feet.  This  will  remove  all 
the  surplus  water. 

Use  a  good  quality  of  sheeting  for  the  cloth  that  is  ruled  of! 
in  squares  and  also  for  the  cloth  covering  the  kernels. 

Do  not  use  a  cheap,  porous  grade  of  cloth,  as  the  sprouts  will 
grow  through  it  and  greatly  interfere  with  the  work. 

Leave  a  I'-inch  margin  around  the  edges  of  the  box  to  prevent 
freezing  and  drying  out. 

^lake  the  squares  to  receive  the  kernels,  2ix2i  inches. 

Sexer  use  the  box  more  than  once  without  thoroughly  scald- 
ing both  the  sawdust  and  the  cloths. 

To  insure  accurate  reading,  the  stem  sprouts  should  be  at 
least  two  inches  long  when  examined. 

Throw  out  all  ears  which  show  weak  germination  as  well  as 
ears  whose  kernels  fail  to  grow. 

Do  not  guess  that  an  ear  of  corn  will  grow  and  grow  strong. 
Test  it.  and  find  out  before  you  have  wasted  upon  it  a  whole  year 
of  labor  and  the  use  of  your  land. 

•Test  six  kernels  from  each  ear  and  discard  the  bad  and  the 
weak  ears. 

Ears  3.  5,  8,  and  10  are  strong-. 


58  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

Ears  1,  4,  7,  and  12  are  only  fair. 

Ears  2,  6,  9,  and.  11  should  be  discarded. 

Is  there  anything  more  foolish  than  to  g-uess  that  800  or  900 
kernels  on  ears  like  2,  6,  11,  etc.,  are  all  right,  when  we  can  find 
out  at  practically  no  expense  ? 

You  say  that  your  field  was  infected  with  cut  worms,  grubs, 
etc.  How  much  more  need  then  of  strong  seed  that  you  may 
have  something  left  for  yourself  after  feeding  the  worms.  You 
say  that  the  spring  is  cold  and  backward  and  that  this  accounts 
for  your  poor  stand  of  corn.  All  the  more  need  then  of  strong 
seed.  Tens  of  thousands  of  farmers  in  Iowa  this  year  have  good 
stands  of  corn,  wiiile  there  are  tens  of  thousands  of  their  neigh- 
bors with  poor  stands,  and  tens  of  thousands  of  others  who  are 
replanting,  which  is  always  most  discouraging  and  most  disap- 
pointing in  results. 

You  say  that  your  ground  is  poor  and  foul;  that  the  season 
was  too  wet,  or  too  dry,  and   the  care   of  the  crop  bad.    You 


m 

..p..  , 

\i* 

B^^ 

The  corn  binder  operating  in  heavy  corn 

know  as  well  as  I  do  that  strong,  vigorous  plants  will  stand 
these  unfavorable  conditions  better  than  poor,  weak  ones.  If 
your  land  is  rich,  well  prepared,  and  the  season  good,  how 
absolutely  foolish  it  is  to  go  out  to  this  field  and  plant  it  with 
poor  seed,  much  of  which  fails  to  grow  or  gives  only  weak  stalks. 

The  time  is  past  for  guessing  that  the  900  kernels  on  an  ear 
are  strong.  We  must  know  before  the  year's  labor  is  put  upon 
them. 

During  the  past  seven  years  more  than  10,000  fields  of  grow- 
ing corn  have  been  examined.  In  no  year  has  the  average 
exceeded  72  per  cent  of  a  perfect  stand.  It  has  been  as  low  as 
64  per  cent.  The  average  has  been  67  or  68  per  cent  of  a  stand. 
In  other  words,  the  average  corn  grower  spends  three  hours  of 
every  day  that  he  works  in  the  corn  field  traveling  over  plowed 
ground  that  produces  nothing. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  .5.9 

There  are  many  causes  which  contribute  to  a  poor  stand  of 
corn,  yet  every  one  who  has  given  the  question  much  attention 
will  at^ree  with  me  that  poor  seed  is  by  far  the  greatest  cause  of 
the  poor  stand. 

Better  Care  of  Seed  Corn  —  We  must  take  better  care  of 
our  seed  corn.  We  must  harvest  it  in  the  fall  before  the  severe 
freezes.  In  Iowa  and  the  north  half  of  Illinois  the  last  ten 
days  in  September  will  be  about  right.  It  should  be  hung  up, 
not  piled  up.  It  is  circulation  of  air  that  is  needed  and  not 
heat.  Especially  is  this  true  during  the  first  two  weeks  after 
the  seed  is  harvested,  while  it  is  still  sappy.  There  is  no  place 
better  than  an  up-stairs  room  or  attic,  where  the  windows  can 
be  left  open  until  the  seed  is  dry.  Again  I  will  repeat,  hang  it 
up,  don't  pile  it  up. 

Plant  the  100  Best  Ears  Together  —  One  hundred  or  so  of 
the  very  best  ears  should  be  selected  in  the  spring  when  we  are 
testing  our  seed,  shelled,  and  mixed  together.  This  best  seed 
which  comes  from  the  finest  ears  should  be  planted  on  one  side 
of  the  corn  field.  Xext  fall  from  this  seven  or  eight  acres  should 
be  selected  the  seed  for  the  following  crop.  Is  there  any  good 
reason  why  any  of  us  should  fail  to  do  this?  We  all  recognize 
the  great  law  that  "like  tends  to  produce  like."'  In  planting 
the  field  it  takes  no  longer  to  put  this  best  seed  in  our  planter 
and  plant  it  out  first. 


Alfalfa  Culture  in  America 


EARLY  HISTORY  — DISTRIBUTION  AND  ADAPTATION 
—  PROFITABLENESS  OF  ALFALFA 


By  Joseph  E.  Wing 

Expert  Agriculturist,  Mechanicsburg,  Ohio 


WHERE  It  Came  From  —  So  many 
centuries  ago  that  history  does  not  re- 
cord when,  the  alfalfa  plant  was  adopted 
into  the  family  of  mankind.  It  was 
grown  long  before  the  days  of  the  Romans, 
and  fed  to  the  saddle  horses  of  the  desert. 
It  was  in  esteem  during  Roman  times, 
and  old  Roman  books  on  agriculture  tell 
how  to  sow  it  and  how  to  till  it  and  how 
to  nourish  it;  and  how,  when  it  is  grown, 
it  "is  good  for  all  manner  of  famished 
beasts  whatever."  Doubtless  the 
chariot  horses  that  Ben  Hur  drove  were  fed  on  alfalfa  hay. 
From  that  day  to  this  it  has  been  a  plant  held  in  high  esteem 
wherever  the  best  agricultural  methods  are  in  use,  especially 
in  dry  and  warm  climates  where  irrigation  is  practiced. 

Introduction  into  America  —  The  introduction  of  alfalfa  into 
America  proceeded  from  two  sources.  The  English  settlers  in 
Virginia  and  the  Atlantic  colonists  brought  it  with  them,  and 
at  one  time  many  years  ago  it  was  in  repute,  under  the  name  of 
"lucerne,''  in  New  York,  parts  of  New  England,  and  Virginia. 
It  was  recognized  as  having  remarkable  value,  yet  as  acting 
strangely  under  cultivation,  responding  finely  for  one  man,  refus- 
ing to  grow  for  another;  growing  beautifully  in  one  field,  refusing 
to  grow  in  an  adjacent  one.  It  failed  to  make  much  seed,  and 
eventually  its  culture  died  out  almost  entirely  in  the  Atlantic 
region. 

Introduction  to  the  Pacific  Coast  Region  — The  Spanish 
people  brought  alfalfa  to  Chili,  Mexico,  Peru,  and  in  a  small  way 
to  southern  California.  It  thrived  in  the  dry,  warm  valleys,  in 
soils  rich  in  mineral  elements  and  well  watered  by  irrigation. 
Its  influence  was  unfelt  in  the  United  States  until  the  settle- 
ment of  California.  The  earlier  settler  sought  only  gold,  but 
soon  there  appeared  another  class  who  sought  by  tillage  of  the 
soil  to  gain  wealth  by  feeding  the  gold  hunters.  Thus  there 
grew  up  a  sort  of  pioneer  farming  in  California,    One  of  the 

60 


62  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

earlier  stockmen  there,  Henry  Miller,  killed  cattle  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. In  order  to  have  always  at  hand  a  supply  of  available 
beef  steaks,  he  bought  land  in  the  San  Joaquin  valley,  and  tried 
tog-row  forage  crops  there.  In  1873  he  began  to  make  serious 
attempts  to  grow  alfalfa,  importing  the  seed  from  Chili.  It  was 
a  plant  that  many  voyagers  from  eastern  America  had  noticed 
growing  luxuriantly  on  the  plains  of  South  America.  Henry 
Miller  succeeded  in  making  his  alfalfa  grow.  He  fed  it  to  cattle, 
and  with  the  profits  bought  more  land  to  sow  more  alfalfa. 
When  the  writer  some  years  ago  visited  the  ranches  of  Lux  and 
Miller,  he  found  feeding  there  on  green  alfalfa,  more  than  a  hun- 
dred thousand  cattle,  with  very  many  sheep.  Thus  had  the 
alfalfa  plant  heaped  up  wealth  for  these  far  sighted  ranchers! 
Doubtless  there  were  other  men  experimenting  with  alfalfa 
growing  in  California  as  early  as  this  or  perhaps  earlier,  but 
Henry  Miller  is  perhaps  the  first  man  to  exploit  the  plant  on  a 
large  scale. 

From  California  the  plant  spread  eastward  to  Utah,  to  Colo- 
rado, to  Idaho  and  Montana,  to  Kansas,  Nebraska,  and,  later,  to 
Ohio,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Wisconsin,  and  New  York;  and  now  in 
these  blessed  days  of  prosperity  it  has  gone  to  nearly  every 
state  in  the  Union,  is  grown  in  Alberta,  Canada,  and  many  of 
the  islands  of  the  sea. 

Alfalfa  Growing  in  its  Infancy  —  And  yet,  with  all  its 
spread,  alfalfa  growing  has  only  just  begun  in  the  eastern  states. 
One  farmer  in  ten  in  favored  regions  is  growing  it,  and  he  is 
growing  only  half  or  maybe  a  tenth  of  what  he  will  some  day. 
The  other  nine  farmers  will  learn  —  they  must  —  or  else  be 
crowded  out  by  their  more  favored  competitors.  It  was  held  for 
a  long  time  that  alfalfa  growing  must  be  confined  to  certain 
climatic  belts.  Now  it  is  known  that  it  thrives,  so  far  as  climate 
is  concerned,  almost  equally  well  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific, 
from  the  Lakes  to  the  Gulf.  Certainly,  it  gives  more  crops  in 
warm  climates  where  it  has  a  longer  growing  season,  but  any 
part  of  America,  saving  the  high  mountain  plateaus,  is  warm 
enough  for  tw  o  crops  a  year. 

Later,  it  was  thought  that  only  certain  soils  would  grow 
alfalfa.  Now  it  is  known  that,  while  it  prefers  rich,  loose  lime- 
stone soils,  it  will  grow  luxuriantly  on  strong,  stiff,  limestone 
clays,  once  they  are  made  dry  with  tiles  and  fed  with  manure. 
It  grows  on  sand,  when  the  sand  is  made  rich.  It  grows  away 
from  limestone,  when  the  land  has  been  sweetened  with  lime. 
In  truth  there  is  hardly  a  type  of  soils  in  the  Union  that  is  not 
now  growing  alfalfa,  under  enthusiastic  culturists,  who  persist 
in  giving  the  conditions  that  it  needs  and  deserves. 

Easily  the  queen  of  all  clovers,  and  of  all  the  plants  of  the 
meadow,  is  alfalfa.    It  is  the  hardiest  of  them  all,  the  most 


63 


64  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

lasting-,  the  most  productive,  the  most  efficient  soil  enricher.  It 
is  the  most  beautiful,  and  it  yields  hay  of  the  highest  quality. 

Alfalfa  is  not  new  to  the  United  States,  but  only  within 
recent  years  has  its  culture  been  well  understood,  and  a  few 
essentials  of  its  success  been  learned.  It  revels  in  dry  land  made 
sweet  with  lime  (where  this  is  needed)^  and  rich  with  manures. 
Alfalfa  is  the  most  energetic  soil-enricher  of  all  the  clovers,  but 
it  must  find  fertile  soil  on  which  to  begin,  and  cannot,  like  sweet 
clover,  begin  on  wornout  lands.  Once  it  is  well  established, 
however,  its  ability  to  build  up  the  field  on  which  it  stands,  and 
the  adjoining  fields  (from  the  manure  made  by  feeding  the  hay), 
is  nothing  less  than  marvelous. 

The  lS"ew  Jersey  experiment  station  has  shown  that  the  yield 
of  an  acre  of  good  alfalfa  contains  fertiliziug  ingredients  that 
in  the  shape  of  commercial  fertilizers  would  cost  on  the  market 


Harvesting  alfalfa 

at  least  $65.00.  So  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  once  alfalfa  is 
established  on  a  farm,  and  the  hay  fed  thereon,  and  the  manure 
saved,  that  farm  must  very  rapidly  increase  in  productiveness. 
Alfalfa  is  a  perennial,  enduring  on  well  drained  soil  from  five 
to  fifty  years  with  one  sowing.  It  may  be  cut  from  three  to  five 
times  a  year,  and  will  yield,  in  the  regions  of  the  corn-belt,  from 
three  to  six  tons  of  hay  per  acre.  The  composition  of  alfalfa 
hay  is  such  that  it  has  almost  the  same  nutritive  value  as  wheat 
bran,  and  may  be  substituted  for  wheat  bran  in  the  ration  of 
clover  with  good  results.  As  a  feed  for  all  classes  of  live  stock 
it  is  unexcelled.  Every  animal  upon  the  farm  loves  alfalfa,  and 
thrives  upon  it.  As  a  pasture  plant  it  has  no  equal  in  the 
amount  which  animals  will  gain  from  an  acre  of  it ;  as  much 
as  600  pounds  of  pork  per  acre  being  frequently  reported 
where  hogs  have  grazed  it.    It  is  also  the  best  horse  pasture 


FOR  BETTER  CR(JRS  65 

known,  and  is  sometimes  used  as  a  pasture  for  sheep  and  cows, 
althoug-h  one  must  observe  due  care  in  de-pasturing'  it  with  these 
animals  since  tliey  may  bloat. 

As  a  soiling  crop  alfalfa  easily  heads  the  list.  It  yields  the 
most  herbagfe  and  of  the  highest  quality,  and  indeed,  it  is  much 
better  for  the  meadow,  and  usually  for  the  animals,  to  feed  it 
off  by  soiling  rather  than  by  de-pasturing. 

Alfalfa  Seeding  —  Much  needless  mystery  has  been  made  of 
the  alfalfaseeding question.  So  much  m3'ster}%  in  fact,  that  many 
farmers  are  afraid  to  try  it  at  all.  Jones  recommends  one  method 
and  Smith  another;  and  how  is  the  farmer  to  tell  which  is  right? 
We  began  the  study  of  the  alfalfa  question  twentA'-five  years  ago, 
and  since  that  time  we  have  carefully  watched  fields  of  it  in 
almost  every  state  in  the  Union.  We  have  corresponded  with 
thousands  of  successful  growers,  and  with  thousands  of  other 
growers  who  were  having  troubles,  and  we  really  believe  now 
that  we  are  able  to  furnish  reliable  data  as  to  just  what  it  is 
necessary  to  do  in  order  to  succeed  with  this  plant. 

We  could  almost  sum  the  matter  up  in  four  words:  Lime, 
drainage,  humus,  and  inoculation.  Perhaps  we  have  given  these 
in  order  of  their  relative  importance.  Lime  is  necessary  on  soils 
not  naturally  of  limestone  formation  or  filled  with  limestone 
pebbles.  The  importance  of  this  is  impressed  upon  us  more  and 
more  each  3'ear;  in  fact,  we  believe  today,  that  there  have  been 
more  failures  throughout  the  L'nited  States  on  account  of 
insutficient  lime  in  the  soil  than  from  any  other  cause. 

Then  as  to  drainage;  there  is  no  use  in  planting  alfalfa  on 
any  soil  where  water  may  ordinarily  be  found  at  a  depth  of  less 
than  three  feet.  The  alfalfa  may  grow  all  right  until  its  roots 
strike  this  water,  but  then  it  will  probably  die. 

Fertile  soil  contains  enough  humus.  Impoverished  soils  may 
be  so  deficient  that  special  preparation  must  be  made  before 
alfalfa  can  possibly  succeed.  Stable  manure,  where  obtainable, 
is  the  very  best  thing  for  adding  the  proper  humus  to  the  soil ; 
and  we  would  urge  its  liberal  use  wherever  possible.  It  might  be 
best  to  use  this  a  year  in  advance  of  sowing  alfalfa,  and  follow 
with  clean  cultivation  to  overcome  what  weeds  might  be  sown 
with  the  manure,  or,  a  good  way  is  to  top-dress  the  alfalfa  during 
its  first  winter,  using  a  manure  spreader  and  applying  the 
manure  evenly  without  large  chunks  that  might  smother  the 
3'oung  plants.  On  Impoverished  soils,  we  would  recommend 
preparation  for  alfalfa  one  or  two  3-ears  in  advance,  growing  such 
crops  as  crimson  clover,  mammoth  clover,  cow  peas,  Canada 
field  peas,  orsoja  beans,  and  preferably  turning  them  under  or 
else  pasturing  them  off,  so  as  to  give  the  soil  the  greatest  benefit 
possible  from  them. 

We  recommend  inoculation,  not  that  it  is  always  necessary, 


66  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

but  it  is  an  inexpensive  process,  and  in  five  cases  out  of  six  it 
will  actually  pay.    This  subject  is  fully  discussed  later  on. 

Having-  determined  that  our  soil  is  sweet,  well  drained,  and 
sufficiently  supplied  with  humus,  the  only  questions  that  remain 
are :  The  preparation  of  a  good  seed-bed;  Sowing-  at  the  proper 
time  of  year;  and,  The  use  of  good  seed.  For  the  seed-bed,  it  is 
essential  that  the  ground  be  carefully  fitted.  It  must  be  plowed, 
unless  it  is  old  ground,  such  as  corn  stubble,  which  may  be 
thoroughly  disked  instead  of  plowing.  It  is  better  to  firm  the 
subsoil  a  little,  so  that  only  the  surface  is  really  loose.  This, 
because  if  the  entire  soil  is  very  loose,  the  seed  may  be  planted 
too  deep,  and  also  because  the  alfalfa  seems  to  prefer  the  sub- 
surface being  a  trifle  firmed. 

Time  of  Seeding  — On  Woodland  Farm,  for  many  years  it 
has  been  our  custom  to  sow  alfalfa  at  oat-seeding  time,  about 
the  first  week  in  April,  using  beardless  spring  barley  as  a  nurse 
crop.  The  barley  is  usually  cut  for  hay  the  last  of  June,  and 
after  this  we  sometimes  secure  a  good  cutting  of  alfalfa  hay  the 
first  season,  although  we  do  not  count  on  this,  and  are  not  dis- 
appointed if  we  do  not  obtain  it.  We  sow  about  three  to  five 
pecks  barley  to  the  acre — on  real  rich  ground  not  more  than  one 
bushel — and  eighteen  to  twenty  pounds  of  alfalfa  seed  at  the 
same  time,  usually  using  a  disk  drill  and  throwing  the  alfalfa 
seed  in  front  of  the  drill,  unless  the  ground  is  very  loose,  in 
which  case  we  throw  the  seed  farther  back  to  prevent  its  being 
covered  too  deeply.  The  alfalfa  seed  should  be  covered  about  an 
inch.  The  advantages  of  this  system  are  that  the  rains  usually 
come  about  the  right  time  for  the  young  alfalfa,  which  makes  a 
strong  growth  throughout  the  entire  season,  generally  giving  us 
with  the  barley  enough  hay  the  first  year  to  pay  the  expenses  of 
planting,  and  goes  into  winter  into  vigorous  shape  with  about 
ten  inches  or  a  foot  of  stalk  standing,  enough  to  hold  the  snow 
throughout  the  winter  and  induce  a  fine,  vigorous  start  in  the 
spring.  We  find  barley  to  be  the  best  nurse  crop  obtainable. 
It  takes  the  place  of  the  weeds  that  would  otherwise  come, 
gives  us  some  very  excellent  feed,  and  with  us,  does  the  alfalfa 
good  and  no  injury.  Oats  are  not  so  good,  because  they  shade 
the  ground  more  and  are  much  more  inclined  to  lodge.  We  find 
that  the  barley  hay  with  the  small  amount  of  alfalfa  we  obtain 
with  it  makes  a  forage  second  only  to  the  pure  alfalfa  itself.  We 
cut  this  when  the  barley  is  in  the  milk  or  dough  stage.  It  is 
not  always  necessary  to  cut  the  barley  for  hay,  as  it  ripens  its 
grain  about  July  12th  in  this  latitude,  and  it  is  rarely  that 
alfalfa  is  suffering  much  by  that  time.  Many  of  our  neighbors 
cut  their  barley  for  grain,  and  still  secure  admirable  stands  of 
alfalfa.  Where  no  nurse  crop  is  used,  it  is  seldom  safe  to  plant 
alfalfa  before  the  20th  of  June,  because  the  weeds  will  almost 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  67 

certainly  choke  the  youn^^  plants,  and  no  amount  of  mowing 
will  prevent  their  doinj?  so. 

Many  of  our  customers  prefer  seeding"  during  the  summer 
months,  and  this  is  certainly  a  very  excellent  way,  frequently 
succeeding  as  well  as  our  own,  although  sometimes  failing  on 
account  of  summer  drought  preventing  the  young  plants  from 
obtaining  sufficient  growth  to  go  through  their  first  winter. 
Many  farmers  become  prejudiced  against  the  early  spring  seeding, 
owing  to  their  using  oats  as  a  nurse  crop,  but  if  they  would  use 
the  beardless  barley,  they  would  doubtless  be  well  pleased  with 
the  earlier  sowing. 

For  summer  seeding  we  recommend  as  a  good  method,  having 
the  alfalfa  follow  a  crop  of  early  potatoes,  or  it  may  be  possible 
to  plow  wheat  stubble  early  enough  to  secure  a  stand  before 
winter.  An  excellent  way  is  to  plow  the  ground  early  in  the 
spring,  harrow  it  as  frequently  as  the  weeds  appear,  and  sow  the 
alfalfa  during  July.  If  the  rains  come  right,  such  alfalfa  should 
make  excellent  growth  before  winter  and  be  certain  to  succeed. 
We  really  believe  that  where  beardless  spring  barley  may  be 
used  as  a  nurse  crop,  the  early  spring  seeding  is  advisable  in  the 
states  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  New  York,  and  much 
of  Pennsylvania.  The  late  seeding  is  certainly  preferable  in 
some  of  the  New  England  states,  in  Virginia,  and  the  states 
south  of  the  Ohio  river.  The  reason  for  the  late  seeding  in  these 
states  is  that  their  climate  seems  to  be  such  that  the  alfalfa 
thrives  better  when  sown  late  than  when  sown  early,  and  also  in 
part  of  these  places  quack  or  crab  grass  and  other  weeds  will 
give  so  much  trouble  that  the  early  seeding  is  almost  sure  to 
fail  on  account  of  them.  The  farther  south  one  goes,  the  later 
is  it  safe  to  seed  alfalfa.  We  have  many  customers  in  Georgia, 
Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  and  Texas,  who  seed  as  late  as 
November  1st,  but  their  winters  are  so  mild  that  the  alfalfa 
never  winter-kills,  and  it  comes  on  the  next  spring  in  just  as 
good  shape  as  if  it  had  been  sown  earlier  in  the  season. 

Fertilizers  —  We  find  that  on  nearly  all  soils,  phosphate  does 
alfalfa  more  good  than  any  other  fertilizer.  AYe  recommend 
basic  slag  on  soils  that  are  acid  and  where  you  do  not  wish  to 
sow  lime,  or  untreated  phosphate  rock  on  limestone  soils  that  are 
not  acid.  For  the  quickest  and  best  results  on  these  limestone 
soils,  use  one  hundred  pounds  acid  phosphate  and  nine  hundred 
pounds  untreated  phosphate  rock  per  acre.  The  untreated 
phosphate  will  absorb  acid  from  the  acid  phosphate,  and  the 
combination  will  bring  the  quickest  results  of  any  form  of 
phosphate  which  can  be  applied.  Also,  applied  in  this  way,  the 
superfluous  acidity  being  taken  up  by  the  raw  phosphate,  there 
will  be  no  danger  of  making  your  land  sour.  Good  barnyard 
manure  as  a  fertilizer  for  alfalfa  cannot  be  beaten;  it  should, 


68  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

however,  go  hand  in  hand  with  the  phosphate:  neither  is  complete 
without  the  other.  They  should  be  applied  at  the  same  time  for 
best  results. 

Seed  —  Good  seed  is  of  great  importance.  Alfalfa  seed  coming 
from  Arizona,  South  America,  or  Arabia,  will  grow  all  right  the 
first  year,  and  then  will  probably  winter-kill  the  first  winter, 
especially  in  any  of  the  northern  states.  We  find  that  the  very 
best  seed  in  the  world,  that  which  is  freest  from  dangerous 
weeds  and  which  possesses  the  greatest  vitality,  is  produced  in 
our  own  United  States,  particularly  in  the  northwestern  part. 
Also  it  is  better  if  grown  on  non-irrigated  soil. 

In  some  of  the  far  southern  states,  an  enemy  constantly  to 
be  fought  is  the  Johnson  grass.  In  some  of  these  states  alfalfa 
seed  is  produced,  and  is  very  likely  to  be  mixed  with  this  pest. 

Alfalfa  for  the  Poultryman — The  poultry  man  will  find 
great  profit  from  having  a  run  of  alfalfa.  This  should  not  be  too 
small  a  space,  but  large  enough  so  that  the  poultry  can  forage  at 
will  without  injuring  the  plants,  and  so  that  he  may  cut  the  hay 
regularly  and  save  it  for  winter  feeding.  Poultry  thrive  upon  a 
diet  composed  chiefly  of  alfalfa,  with  some  grain  in  addition. 

Alfalfa  for  the  Dairyman  —  ISTo  Other  food  forms  SO  good  a 
basis  for  the  ration  of  a  dairy  cow  as  alfalfa,  the  reason  being 
its  extreme  richness  in  protein,  and  its  easy  digestibility,  and 
the  additional  reason  that  the  cows  love  it  so,  and  eat  it  so 
greedily.  Alfalfa  growing  countries  have  a  great  advantage 
over  other  countries  in  the  dairy  business,  so  that  it  is  well  for 
the  dairyman,  wherever  he  is  situated,  to  begin  to  consider  how 
he  may  make  his  own  soil  an  alfalfa-growing  soil.  It  has  been 
found  that  the  cost  of  milk  production  can  be  cut  square  in  two 
by  the  use  of  home-grown  alfalfa.  A  ton  of  alfalfa  hay,  early 
cut  and  nicely  cured,  as  food  for  the  dairy  cow  is  worth  as  much, 
pound  for  pound,  as  the  best  wheat  bran.  In  order  to  get  its 
full  feeding  value,  it  should  be  ground.  Even  ordinary  alfalfa 
hay  is  w^orth  nearly  as  much  as  wheat  bran;  so  that  it  is  clear  to 
the  eastern  dairyman,  who  must  pay  $25.00  a  ton  for  wheat  bran, 
a  field  of  alfalfa  yielding  no  more  than  three  or  four  tons  per 
acre  is  a  veritable  gold  mine.  Governor  Hoard  lias  found  that 
with  alfalfa  in  the  dairy  ration,  it  is  necessary  to  use  only  about 
half  the  amount  of  grain  that  must  be  fed  when  other  forage  is 
provided.  In  truth,  with  alfalfa  hay  and  corn  silage,  little  or 
no  feed  is  needed  to  keep  the  dairy  cow  in  the  most  profitable 
producing  condition.  We  thus  emphasize  the  importance  of 
alfalfa  to  the  dairyman,  because  among  the  many  thousands  of 
eastern  dairymen,  the  margin  between  cost  of  production  and 
selling  price  of  their  products  is  so  small  that  they  are  in  a 
rather  discouraged  condition,  and  this   condition,  alfalfa  will 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  (if) 

relieve  better  and  more  easily  than  any  other  thins-.  There  was 
a  time,  only  a  few  years  ago,  when  it  would  have  seemed  not 
worth  while  thus  to  attempt  to  raise  the  hopes  of  the  dairyman, 
for  then  it  had  not  been  demonstrated  .that  alfalfa  could  be 
grown  away  from  the  "alfalfa  belt."  But  since  then  we  have 
learned  the  few  simple  requirements  of  the  alfalfa  plant,  and 
we  do  not  hesitate  to  affirm  that  we  can  grow  alfalfa  anywhere, 
upon  any  farm  in  the  United  States  not  at  too  high  an  altitude, 
if  the  few  simple  but  essential  conditions  are  complied  with. 

Time  to  Cut  Alfalfa  — We  usually  cut  it  when  about  one- 
fifth  of  the  plants  begin  to  show  bloom.  A  somewhat  better 
way  of  ascertaining  the  proper  time  is  to  watch  for  the  buds  at 
the  base  of  the  plants  and  cut  when  they  appear  above  the 
ground.  These  buds  are  the  beginning  of  new  stalks,  and  their 
appearance  indicates  that  the  plant  is  ready  to  make  another 
crop. 

Alfalfa  as  a  Pasture  Crop — It  is  especially  adapted  to  being 
de-pastured  by  horses  and  hogs,  and  perhaps  the  greatest  profit 
comes  from  such  use.  The  practical  difficulty  with  de-pastur- 
ing alfalfa  with  sheep  and  cows  is  that,  being  a  clover,  it  some- 
times causes  bloat,  similar  to  clover  bloat.  The  best  preventive 
of  bloat  is  to  have  the  alfalfa  mixed  with  grasses  in  the  pasture. 
When  this  is  done,  the  animals  eating  the  two  together  are  very 
much  less  apt  to  bloat.  The  best  grass  to  mix  with  alfalfa  for 
pasture  is  brome  grass  {bromus  inermis.) 

In  pasturing  alfalfa,  to  get  the  best  results,  one  should  not  turn 
stock  on  it  before  the  plants  have  grown  nearly  to  the  blossoming 
stage;  furthermore,  the  pasture  should  be  so  large  that  the 
animals  will  not  eat  it  down  close.  It  should  be  mown  at  least 
twice  during  the  season  and  made  into  hay.  It  will  not  do,  how- 
ever, to  pasture  the  field  with  sheep  or  cattle  immediately  after 
it  has  been  mown,  this  being  the  surest  known  method  of  invit- 
ing disaster.  After  alfalfa  is  mown,  it  is  not  safe  to  turn  stock 
onto  it  until  the  plants  have  reached  the  woody  stage.  Thus 
treated,  alfalfa  pastures  will  last  for  years,  and  afford  an 
astonishing  amount  of  nourishment. 

All  stock  should  be  taken  off  of  alfalfa  pastures  by  the  first 
of  October,  or,  in  the  eastern  states,  a]b  the  beginning  of  hard 
frosts;  this,  both  for  the  good  of  the  alfalfa  and  for  the  good  of 
the  animals  themselves.  It  is  dangerous  to  de-pasture  frozen 
alfalfa,  and  it  is  not  even  wise  to  cut  it  for  hay.  A  profitable 
scheme  sometimes  practiced,  is  to  break  an  old  blue  grass  pas- 
ture, plow  it  rather  deep,  fertilize  it  well,  and  seed  it  down  to 
alfalfa.  A  good  stand  of  alfalfa  is  almost  assured  by  this  method, 
while  the  blue  grass  comes  up  immediately  and  fills  in  be- 
tween the  alfalfa  plants:  within  a  few  years,  the  amount  of  com- 
bined herbage  yielded  by  this  practice  is  almost  incredibly  great, 


70  FOB  BETTER  CBOFS 

the  grass  itself  yielding  more  than  it  did  before  the  alfalfa  was 
sown  upon  it.  Alfalfa  thus  sown  will  not  last  as  long  as  when 
the  grass  is  absent,  but  while  it  is  there,  it  is  extremely  profitable.. 
In  any  of  the  states  east  of  the  Missouri,  we  think  that 
farmers  who  pasture  alfalfa  with  cattle  and  sheep  may  be 
reasonably  sure  to  have  some  losses,  no  matter  how  careful  they 
are.  We  have  never  succeeded  in  pasturing  it  ourselves  without 
some  losses,  but  we  believe  it  is  sometimes  more  profitable  to 
pasture  alfalfa  and  lose  a  few  sheep  or  perhaps  a  steer,  than  it  is 
to  handle  our  stock  on  other  feed  without  this  loss. 

Alfalfa  Turning  Yellow  —  This  may  be  caused  either  by  a 
leaf  spot  or  rust,  or  it  may  indicate  that  conditions  are  not 
right  with  the  plant,  that  it  needs  lime,  drainage,  or  inoculation. 
Mowing  will  usually  check  the  rust;  the  other  troubles  are  fully 
discussed  later  on. 

Inoculation — All  legumes  have  tiny  bacteria  that  work  on 
their  roots,  forming  "nodules."  These  bacteria  draw  nitrogen 
from  the  air,  and  both  supply  the  plants  with  it  and  also  add  it 
directly  to  the  soil.  Without  these  bacteria  the  legumes  will 
soon  perish,  although  most  of  the  legumes  seem  to  find  their 
proper  bacteria  in  almost  any  soil.  Alfalfa  is  an  exception,  and 
it  nearly  always  pays  to  supply  its  bacteria  artificially.  This 
may  be  done  very  inexpensively.  Obtain  soil  from  some  near-by 
alfalfa  field  and  apply  it  at  the  rate  of  one  hundred  pounds  per 
acre,  sowing  it  late  in  the  afternoon  and  harrowing  it  in 
Immediately  before  allowing  the  sun  to  strike  it.  This  is  the 
best  way  to  inoculate.  Soil  from  around  the  sweet  clover  or 
melilotus  roots  answers  equally  well.  The  government  will 
furnish  inoculation  of  another  sort  free;  this  usually  succeeds, 
but  not  always.  Another  excellent  way  is  to  sow  a  few  pounds 
of  alfalfa  seed  with  your  red  clover.  After  the  clover  is  plowed 
up,  sow  to  alfalfa,  and  you  will  probably  have  the  field  inoculated. 

Lime  in  the  Soil — Alfalfa  thrives  best  on  soils  that  are  most 
abundantly  supplied  with  lime.  It  absolutely  fails  where  lime 
is  deficient.  Nothing  will  take  the  place  of  lime,  and  we  believe 
that  there  have  been  more  failures  throughout  the  eastern 
states  owing  to  this  deficiency  than  from  any  other  cause. 

Kinds  of  Lime — Ground  limestone  is  now  manufactured  in 
many  places  in  the  United  States,  and  sold  usually,  where  made, 
for  about  $1.25  per  ton.  The  finer  it  is  ground,  the  more  quickly 
is  it  available.  It  should  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  about  one 
hundred  pounds  per  square  rod,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  eight  tons 
per  acre;  although  where  it  is  inaccessible,  and  therefore  costly, 
much  lighter  applications  are  used  with   good  results,  although 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  71 

not  so  lasting-.  Sometimes  one  can  get  crushed  limestone 
screenings,  much  of  it  as  line  as  sand.  Tiiis  stuff  is  used  for  con- 
crete work,  walks,  and  ballast,  and  often  may  be  bought  as  low 
as  tifty  cents  per  ton  or  less.  When  the  g^round  limestone  is  not 
available,  and  this  coarser  material  is,  we  advise  its  use.  I*ut 
on  more  of  it,  and  eventually  every  bit  of  it  will  become  availa- 
ble. It  will  last  for  many  years  in  the  soil,  giving-  out  its  bene- 
ficial influence  constantly.  Many  farmers  having  ledges  of 
limestone  upon  their  land  can  well  afford  to  grind  their  own 
limestone  at  home;  and  a  machine  capable  of  grinding  a  little 
more  than  a  ton  an  hour  and  taking  in  stones  11  x  13  inches  in 


A  heavy  crop  of  alfalfa 

size  costs  about  $600.00.    These  machines  are  very  durable  and 
the  expense  of  operating-  them  quite  light. 

Other  Forms  of  Lime— When  limestone  rock  is  burned,  tlie 
carbon  is  driven  off,  and  caustic  lime  remains.  Burned  lime  has 
lost  about  one-half  its  weiglit,  so  that  a  ton  of  burned  lime  has 
as  much  power  to  sweeten  soils  as  two  tons  of  unburned  or  car- 
bonate of  lime.  The  one  difficulty  with  burned  lime  is  that  it 
has  this  caustic  nature,  and  is  said  to  destroy  part  of  the  humus 
of  the  soil.  Burned  lime  is  more  easily  secured,  and  the  freight 
rates  on  it  are  often  less  than  with  the  ground  limestone.  From 
one  to  two  tons  per  acre  of  the  caustic  lime  are  used.  It  may  be 
ground  very  easily  after  being  burned,  and  then  drilled  into  the 
soil;  or  it  may  be  slaked  with  a  little  water  so  that  it  falls  into 


72  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

a  white  powder,  and  then  distributed.  "Agricultural  lime," 
often  sold  at  absurdly  high  prices,  is  simply  burned  lime  slaked 
and  ground,  and  is  in  no  way  better  than  the  lump  that  any 
farmer  can  slake  at  home. 

Air-Slaked  Lime— If  you  do  not  use  ground  limestone,  air- 
slaked  lime  is  the  only  thing  that  you  should  use.  It  requires 
one  and  one-half  to  two  tons  of  it  to  do  as  much  work  as  one  ton 
of  caustic  lime,  but  while  caustic  lime  attacks  the  liumus  of  the 
soil,  air-slaked  lime  probably  does  very  little  injury  in  this  way. 
We  do,  however,  recommend  that  this  lime  should  have  not  less 
than  six  months'  time  in  which  to  air-slake,  and  a  year  would 
be  still  better.  In  this  time,  if  the  lime  is  well  burned,  all  the 
lumps  should  slake,  making  it  much  easier  to  apply,  and  also 
very  much  safer  to  use  on  your  ground.  We  advise  using  air- 
slaked  lime  at  the  rate  of  two  to  four  tons  per  acre.  It  is  unwise 
to  sow  lime  and  acid  phosphate  at  the  same  time,  as  the  lime 
would  neutralize  the  phosphate;  probably  this  would  not  apply 
to  untreated  phosphate  rock. 

Lime  Not  Everywhere  Needed  —  Because  of  the  wide- 
spread interest  in  alfalfa  and  lime,  we  get  letters  asking  about 
the  application  of  lime,  from  regions  where  we  cannot  think 
lime  is  needed.  Hardly  anywhere  is  it  needed  in  the  arid  region, 
in  the  Dakotas,  in  Nebraska— perhaps  nowhere  in  alkaline  soils; 
probably  not  in  any  place  where  limestone  gravel  is  mixed 
through  the  soil  by  the  glaciers  would  additional  lime  be  espe- 
cially needed.  When  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  get  stands  of  red 
clover;  when  "sorrel"  comes  in  the  land;  and  crab  grass  crowds 
out  the  alfalfa;  when  the  alfalfa  plants  that  come  have  a  sickly 
yellow  appearance  instead  of  a  dark  vigorous  green;  then  one 
may  safely  assume  that  lime  is  needed;  and  in  the  humid  regions 
of  the  east,  wherever  Kentucky  blue  grass  and  white  clover  is 
not  the  natural  carpet  of  the  soil,  alfalfa  growers  should  take 
heed  of  the  need  of  more  carbonate  of  lime  before  sowing  their 
seed. 

Alfalfa  and  Tile  Under-Drains  — The  question  is  often 
asked:  "Will  alfalfa  stop  tile  under-drains?"  On  Woodland 
Farm  with  probably  eighteen  miles  of  tile  under-drains,  only  a 
few  hundred  yards  have  given  trouble  from  being  stopped  with 
alfalfa  roots.  These  places  where  trouble  has  occurred  are 
where  running  water  flows  through  the  tile  continuously  from 
perennial  springs.  In  no  instance  has  the  alfalfa  given  trouble 
to  ordinary  farm  drains  where  the  tiles  become  dry  in  summer. 

A  Thin  Stand  of  Alfalfa  —  It  rarely  pays  to  try  to  thicken 
alfalfa.  The  seed  will  usually  come  up  all  right,  but  for  some 
reason  it  will  mostly  perish  throughout  the  first  season.    Disking 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  73 

will  make  the  alfalfa  stool  out  more  and  thereby  help  tlie  stand, 
or  clover  may  be  sown  with  the  thin  alfalfa  with  ^-ood  results. 
Another  very  excellent  method  which  we  recommend,  is 
plowing  the  alfalfa  up,  and  plowing  it  quite  deeply.  This  will 
not  kill  nearly  all  of  the  young  plants.  Then  immediately  re- 
seed,  and  the  second  time  you  will  be  almost  certain  to  secure 
an  excellent  stand  of  alfalfa. 

Weeds  in  Alfalfa  —  Good  soils  are  frequently  stored  with 
weed  seeds:  yet  a  thorough  cultivation  of  the  ground  the  year 
preceding  the  sowing  of  alfalfa  will  accomplish  much.  Ordinary 
weed  seeds  are  pretty  well  destroyed  by  the  mower  running  over 
the  ground  two  or  three  times  the  first  season.  Canada  thistles 
are  said  to  be  eradicated  by  the  growing  of  alfalfa;  and  many 
other  serious  pests,  including  convolvulus  arvcnsis  variously 
styled  bindwood.  wild  morning  glory,  or  wild  pea  vine. 

Sometimes  a  little  sweet  clover  (melilotus)  is  unavoidably 
present  in  alfalfa  seed.  This  need  give  no  concern,  since  the 
natural  mowings  given  the  alfalfa  will  eradicate  it  in  two  years. 
There  are  weeds,  however,  that  will  get  the  better  of  alfalfa, 
and  that  right-speedily.  One  of  the  worst  is  dodder.  Not  many 
farmers  know  dodder  when  they  see  it.  It  is  a  parasitic  vine, 
having  an  almost  leafless,  yellow  stem  as  large  as  a  small  twine 
string,  which  runs  through  the  alfalfa,  twining  around  the 
stems,  sending  little  rootlets  in  to  suck  the  juice  of  the  plant. 
Dodder  begins  its  life  from  a  seed  dropped  to  the  earth  when 
the  alfalfa  is  sown ;  but  after  having  had  a  brief  experience  with 
its  roots  in  the  soil,  it  leaves  the  earth  and  roots  only  in  the 
growing  alfalfa,  which  it  binds  together  in  a  death  grip,  making 
a  dense  tangle  of  yellow  vines  and  slowly  dying  alfalfa  plants. 

Farmers  cannot  afford  to  treat  dodder  as  they  would  any 
other  weed.  It  is  so  deadly  that  it  must  be  stamped  out  imme- 
diately, or  it  will  become  a  very  serious  pest,  and  the  methods 
used  to  exterminate  other  weeds  will  not  answer  for  this  one.  If 
there  are  only  occasional  small  patches  to  be  found,  mow  the 
alfalfa  in  these  patches  before  the  dodder  begins  to  bloom ;  then 
in  a  few  days,  scatter  straw  over  the  infested  areas,  and  burn  it. 
This  may  kill  the  alfalfa  plants,  but  it  will  probably  kill  the 
dodder  also.  If  your  field  is  badly  infested,  there  is  nothing  to 
do  but  to  plow  it  up,  and  plant  it  to  corn  or  some  cultivated  crop 
for  one  or  two  years. 

Dodder  Infests  clover  just  as  frequently  as  it  does  alfalfa, 
and  it  is  just  as  dangerous  in  the  clover  as  it  is  in  the  alfalfa. 
Farmers  should  take  great  pains  to  prevent  this  pest  from 
becoming  established  in  their  land,  and  should  send  samples  of 
their  seed  to  their  experiment  stations  for  analysis  before  seeding. 

Alfalfa  in  Corn  — We  cannot  recommend  seeding  alfalfa  in 
corn  at  the  last  cultivation,  as  many   wish   to  do,  because  the 


74  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

corn  nearly  always  shades  the  alfalfa  so  much  that  it  will  not 
thrive  until  after  the  corn  is  cut ;  also  the  corn  takes  practically 
all  of  the  moisture  from  the  soil ,  causing  the  alfalfa  to  suffer  from, 
droug-ht ;  and  it  usually  happens  that  we  have  most  of  the  dry 
weather  between  the  time  of  the  last  cultivation  of  corn  and 
fall,  so  that  all  three  of  these  causes  will  operate  against  the 
alfalfa.  We  have  seen  many  splendid  successes  from  this, 
method,  and  many  failures.  We  think  the  chances  of  success 
by  this  method  to  be  about  equal  to  the  chances  of  failure. 

Soils  Best  Suited  io  Alfalfa—  While  it  is  true  that  alfalfa 
may  be  grown  by  devoted  enthusiasts  anywhere,  yet  it  has  affin- 
ity for  certain  types  of  soils,  and  is  most  easily  grown  thereon. 
These  soils  are  deep,  pervious  to  air  and  water,  well  stored  with 
mineral  elements,  and  somewhat  alkaline  in  their  nature.  Thus 


Stacking  alfalfa 

alfalfa  revels  in  the  arid  west,  when  water  is  supplied,  because 
there  has  never  been  any  leaching  of  mineral  fertility,  and  the 
land  is  very  rich  in  potash,  phosphorus,  and  lime.  This  alka- 
linity favors  the  growth  and  development  of  the  bacteria  that 
grow  upon  the  alfalfa  rootlets  and  makes  the  plants  thrive.  In 
the  more  eastern  sections,  along  the  Missouri  river,  there  are 
great  areas  of  a  peculiar  whitish  soil  called  the  Loess  deposits. 
These  soils  are  the  result  of  wind  deposit,  made  many  centuries 
ago  when  the  land  was  desert.  On  these  very  deep  and  fairly 
fertile  Loess  soils  alfalfa  revels,  its  roots  penetrating  to  very 
great  depths,  sometimes  as  far  as  thirty  feet. 

Yet  farther  to  the  eastward  are  the  prairies  of  Iowa  and 
Illinois,  black  with  stored  humus  and  rich  in  plant  food.  On 
these  prairies  alfalfa  does  not  naturally  succeed  very  well. 
This  is  owing  in  part  to  a  lack  of  drainage ;  in  some  instances^ 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  75 

throui,'-h  the  decay  of  too  much  veg-etable  matter,  there  is  acid- 
ity in  these  black  soils.  In  many  other  cases  tliere  is  some 
ditllculty  in  establishini^  bacterial  energy,  and  tlie  reason  for 
this  is  unknown.  However,  the  remedy  has  l)een  found  to  be 
applications  of  barnyard  manure,  which  works  like  magic  on 
tliese  black  prairie  soils,  and  when  coupled  with  the  under- 
draining,  where  it  is  needed,  alfalfa  is  found  to  grow  with 
remarkable  vigor  and  profit  on  the  black  corn  soils  of  Iowa  and 
Illinois.  The  reader,  if  he  dwells  in  this  land,  should  consult 
the  bulletins  of  the  Iowa  and  Illinois  experiment  stations  for 
help  to  make  his  alfalfa  surely  grow. 

Soils  on  which  it  is  Difficult  to  Grow  Alfalfa  — It  is  more 
difficult  to  grow  alfalfa  on  some  soils  than  on  others,  and  on 
some  of  them  it  is  not  wise  to  make  the  attempt.  First,  any 
soil  that  is  not  more  than  two  and  one-half  feet  above  the  water 
line  is  too  shallow  for  continual  alfalfa  growth.  It  needs  a 
depth  of  at  least  three  feet  to  water,  and  if  the  distance  is  even 
grsater  all  the  better.  In  laying  tile  underdrains  for  a  founda- 
tion to  an  alfalfa  field,  seek,  then,  to  get  the  level  of  the  water 
line  down  at  least  three  or  four  feet. 

On  peaty  soils  with  little  clay  or  sound  earth  within  them,  it 
is  not  often  that  alfalfa  will  thrive.  There  are  some  exceptions 
to  this  rule,  though  they  are  not  well  understood. 

On  nearly  barren  sands  it  is  doubtful  if  it  is  worth  while 
trying  to  establish  alfalfa  fields.  They  must  be  continually  fed 
in  order  to  produce  this  forage,  so  rich  in  mineral  elements,  and 
it  must  be  remembered  that  these  mineral  elements  must  come 
from  the  soil. 

Clays— While  the  most  luxuriant  growth  of  alfalfa  is  usually 
from  a  porous  soil,  a  loam  or  gravelly  alluvium,  yet  clays  drained 
and  stored  with  vegetable  matter  are  producing  some  of  the 
best  growths  of  alfalfa  in  the  United  States.  This  is  especially 
true  of  strong,  tough  limestone  clays  that,  when  in  their  natural 
state,  hold  w^ater  "like  a  jug,"  but  when  underdrained  and  well 
manured  become  more  open  and  pervious  to  both  air  and  mois- 
ture. On  such  clays  alfalfa  revels,  and  when  plowed  up  and 
other  crops  are  planted  on  the  land,  it  is  astonishing  to  see  with 
what  vigor  they  grow,  revealing  plainly  the  very  great  benefit 
that  the  alfalfa  has  been  to  the  soil,  both  by  adding  nitrogen 
through  the  decay  of  its  leaves  and  roots,  and  by  bringing  up 
mineral  matters  from  the  sub-soil,  and  by  decaying  and  leaving 
air  and  water  passages  through  the  clay,  alwa3-s  before  too  dense 
to  permit  these  helpful  agents  to  work  their  will.  And  when 
alfalfa  is  sown  again  upon  these  clays  after  one  or  two  years  of 
grain  or  hoed  crops,  manure  being  scattered  over  the  land  in  the 
interval,  it  is  found  that  the  alfalfa  responds  wonderfully  and 
yields  better  than  it  did  from  its  first  seeding. 


76  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

Advantages  of  the  Alfalfa  Crop  — What,  briefly,  are  the 
advantages  of  the  alfalfa  plant  over  other  forage  crops?  First, 
that  it  roots  so  deep  in  the  soil.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  alfalfa 
roots  penetrate  as  deep  as  there  is  any  soil.  If  the  soil  is  three 
feet  deep,  the  roots  will  penetrate  three  feet.  If  the  soil  is  ten 
feet  deep,  the  roots  will  go  down  ten  feet.  And  if  the  soil  is 
thirty  feet  deep,  the  roots  will  go  down  thirty  feet.  Thus  the 
whole  soil  is  utilized. 

The  Whole  Season— Next,  remember  that  the  plant  uses  the 
whole  of  the  growing  season,  and  it  is  the  one  crop  that  the 
farmer  grows  that  does  this.  It  is  very  hardy  and  does  not  much 
mind  cold.  As  soon  in  spring  as  the  sun  has  slightly  warmed  the 
earth  the  alfalfa  is  up  and  is  growing.  It  does  not  mind  light 
frosts,  but  keeps  right  on  growing.  Soon  after  the  corn  is 
planted  the  alfalfa  is  ready  to  cut— by  the  first  of  June  in  most 
of  the  region  of  the  corn  belt,  earlier  in  the  South,  and  not  much 
later  anywhere.  Thus  the  soil  has  yielded  one  crop  almost  before 
the  corn  has  begun  to  take  hold  at  all. 

]S^ext,  consider  what  happens  when  you  cut  off  that  first  cut- 
ting. It  should  be  taken  away  as  soon  as  little  buds  appear  on 
the  lower  part  of  the  stems,  showing  that  a  new  growth  is  ready 
to  start  up.  At  this  time  the  plant  will  be  partly  in  bloom  and 
the  leaves  dropping  from  the  larger  stems.  Then  is  the  time  to 
cut  it  down  and  make  it  into  hay.  The  hay  making  must 
proceed  rapidly,  for  soon  after  this  first  crop  is  laid  low  these  buds 
start  into  action,  and  in  about  fifteen  minutes  after  the  mower 
has  passed  over  the  field  there  is  a  second  crop  under  way.  This 
makes  it  needful  to  get  the  crop  off  the  field  promptly  and  let  the 
next  one  come  on.  In  thirty  days  from  the  time  it  is  cut  there 
stands  a  second  crop  ready  for  the  mower.  And  after  that  in 
thirty-five  or  forty  days  there  is  yet  a  third  crop  ready.  And  if  it 
is  taken  off  on  time  there  is  the  fourth  cutting.  Much  of  the 
yield  of  these  later  cuttings  depends  of  course  upon  the  presence 
of  moisture  in  the  soil,  but  it  is  sure  that  the  alfalfa  will  use  all 
of  the  moisture  from  rainfall,  and  if  irrigation  is  possible  it  will 
use  a  very  large  amount  of  irrigation  water.  Thus  it  uses  to  the 
best  advantage  all  of  the  soil,  all  of  the  season  from  early  spring 
till  late  fall,  and  all  of  the  soil  moisture.  Of  no  other  crop  can 
this  be  said. 

Value  of  Resultant  Crop — The  best  of  all  is  that  the  forage 
that  the  alfalfa  plant  produces  is  the  richest  and  most  palatable 
that  the  farmer  can  grow.  The  alfalfa  plant,  cut  at  the  right 
time,  and  rightly  cured,  is  very  rich  in  protein.  What  is  protein? 
It  is  what  makes  the  red  flesh  and  red  blood  of  the  animal.  It 
is  what  makes  nerve  and  brain  and  vital  process.  Alfalfa  is  rich 
in  bone.  It  is  the  best  feed  for  the  baby  on  the  farm,  for  the 
baby  colt,  the  baby  calf,  the  baby  lamb,  pig,  and  chick,    it  is 


Fvn  BETTER  CJiUl'S  77 


good  for  the  baby  because  the  baby  must  have  protein  to  build 
his  liltle  body.  And  as  it  is  best  for  the  baby  so  it  is  best  for 
the  baby's  mollier.  It  makes  her  full  of  milk  and  restores  her 
tissues.  It  ])uilds  the  unborn  young-  within  her,  and  after  its 
birth  it  tills  her  with  milk  to  make  the  baby  grow. 

For  Working  Horses— There  is  no  one  thing  so  good  as 
alfalfa  for  the  working  horse.  It  builds  his  wasting  muscles,  it 
keeps  him  strong  and  healthy.  He  needs  much  less  grain  when 
he  can  have  alfalfa  hay.  And  he  is  fuller  of  life  and  spirit  than 
when  fed  upon  any  other  hay.  It  is  necessary  to  remember  only 
that  this  hay  should  be  fairly  mature  when  it  is  cut,  and  well 
cured  so  that  it  shall  not  be  mouldy  or  musty.  There  ought  to 
be  no  dust  on  alfalfa  hay.  There  are  no  hairs  upon  alfalfa 
stems  and  leaves  as  there  are  on  clover  leaves;  therefore  alfalfa 
hay  has  no  tendency  to  bestow  "heaves"  upon  horses.  For  old 
and  hard  worked  horses  in  thin  flesh  alfalfa  has  great  restorative 
powers.  For  driving  horses  it  should  be  fed  in  moderate  amounts, 
else  it  will  make  them  fat  and  soft.  Even  working  teams  mav 
be  fed  too  large  amounts  of  alfalfa  hay.  It  should  be  steadily 
borne  in  mind  that  early  cut  and  well  cured  alfalfa  hay  is  nearly 
as  rich,  pound  for  pound,  as  wheat,  bran,  so  that  to  feed  too 
great  an  amount  of  it  is  not  merely  wasteful,  but  puts  an  undue 
strain  upon  the  excretory  organs  to  eliminate  the  unnecessary 
food  substance  from  the  tissues.  The  over  feeding  of  alfalfa 
hay  to  horses  has  in  some  localities  caused  the  use  of  it  to  be- 
come unpopular,  and  to  raise  an  outcry  against  it.  To  offset 
that  it  may  be  said  that  the  writer  has  fed  no  other  hay  to  his 
horses,  both  working  teams  and  driving  horses  with  mares  and 
foals,  for  many  years,  and  has  yet  to  observe  the  first  instance 
of  evil  result,  save  that  the  driving  horses  when  not  used 
regularly  become  soft  and  easily  sweated. 

For  Mares  and  Foals  —  There  is  nothing  else  so  good  for  the 
mare,  while  she  is  carrying  her  unborn  colt,  as  to  run  on  an 
alfalfa  pasture,  and  eat  alfalfa  hay  in  winter.  Her  colt  comes 
strong  and  well  developed,  and  after  it  has  come  she  is  full  of 
milk  for  it.  Then  if  she  is  in  the  alfalfa  meadow  the  colt  early 
learns  to  nip  the  delicious  herbage,  and  thus  takes  in  additional 
nourishment  at  the  time  when  he  is  best  able  to  make  use  of  it. 
It  makes  his  bones  grow  and  covers  them  with  good,  firm 
muscle,  it  hastens  his  development  greatly,  it  adds  to  his  beauty, 
and  spirit,  and  usefulness.  The  best  thoroughbreds  in  the 
United  States  often  come  from  the  alfalfa  meadows  of  Cali- 
fornia, and  the  breeders  of  race  horses  in  Kentucky  are  beginning 
to  add  alfalfa  to  the  bill  of  fare  of  their  petted  darlings.  The 
great  Percherons  of  France  eat  alfalfa  with  the  bloom  on  it 
when  they  are  lusty  foals  in  their  native  land.  The  horse 
breeder  wherever  he  is  should  at  all  times  endeavor  to  call  to 


78  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

his  aid  this  crop  that  is,  par  excellence,  the  one  best  suited  to  his 
use.  While  there  is  some  danger  in  grazing-  alfalfa  with  sheep 
or  cows,  there  is  none  whatever  in  grazing  it  with  horses,  and 
thus  not  only  the  best  but  the  cheapest  possible  development 
may  be  secured. 

Alfalfa  for  the  Dairy  Herd— Calves  grown  on  alfalfa  develop 
rapidly  and  are  ready  to  become  mothers  earlier  than  when 
developed  on  other  foods.  Pregnant  cows  fed  alfalfa  come  in 
strong  and  well  nourished,  with  full  udders.  Milking  cows 
fed  alfalfa  hay  as  part  of  their  ration  give  milk  as  with  no  other 
possible  combination.  Not  to  go  into  figures  or  tables  of  per- 
centages, suffice  it  to  say  that  alfalfa  leaves  are  a  little  richer 
in  protein  than  wheat  bran,  that  alfalfa  stems,  cut  early  and 
nicely  cured,  are  nearly  as  digestible  as  wheat  bran,  and  nearly 
as  palatable.  Thus  alfalfa  may  well  take  the  place  of  a  large 
part  of  the  grain  ration,  and  may  be  made  to  form  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  needed  protein.  Thus  not  only  is  the  ration  very 
greatly  cheapened,  but  the  animals  give  far  greater  returns  than 
when  they  do  not  have  alfalfa  hay.  On  most  farms  in  the  corn 
belt  there  is  a  decided  scarcity  of  foods  rich  in  protein.  Corn 
itself  is  deficient,  and  enough  corn  can  not  be  fed  to  cows 
to  make  them  give  their  greatest  amount  of  milk;  whereas  if  the 
attempt  is  made,  disaster  results  because  the  excess  of  fat  form- 
ing food  consumed  leads  to  disorders  of  digestion  or  makes'  the 
cow  herself  too  fat  to  be  long  a  profitable  dairy  animal.  Further- 
more, the  corn  fodder  and  stover,  the  timothy  hay  and  blue 
grass,  the  oat  straw,  sorghum,  silage,  nearly  the  whole  list  of 
common  farm  crops  that  can  be  grown  for  the  dairy,  are  deficient 
in  protein,  so  that  alfalfa  has  for  the  dairy  farmer  a  very  great 
value,  coming  as  it  does  to  balance  up  these  other  more  fattening 
and  heat-making  provenders.  This  is  not  mere  theory,  but  a 
fact  most  abundantly  proven  by  experience  in  the  west,  in  the 
middle  states  and  later  in  the  heart  of  the  best  dairying  section, 
through  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  England,  where 
some  of  the  farmers  are  producing  their  own  alfalfa,  and  others 
are  securing  it  from  their  more  fortunate  brothers  of  the  west. 
The  writer  has  himself  sent  alfalfa  hay  to  a  gentleman  milking 
one  of  the  best  herds  of  Guernseys  in  America,  animals  fed  as 
well  as  science  and  skill  could  devise,  and  had  word  afterward 
that  the  addition  of  alfalfa  hay  to  their  ration  made  an  increase 
in  milk  yield  of  twenty  per  cent! 

Alfalfa  and  Silage  the  Cheapest  Dairy  Ration— With  good 
alfalfa  hay  and  good  sweet  corn  silage,  made  from  corn  that  has 
been  allowed  to  mature  well  before  being  harvested,  the  cheapest 
and  best  milk  yields  are  secured.  With  this  ration  tliere  is 
indeed  very  little  need  of  any  other  grain.  That  great  dairy 
authority,  ex-Governor  Hoard,  has  found  in  practice  that  with 


FOR  BETTEIi  CHOI'S  79 

this  combination,  and  as  little  as  four  or  five  pounds  daily  of 
grain,  not  only  has  lie  had  the  maximum  returns  in  milk  and 
cream,  but  he  has  seen  the  dairy  herd  maintained  in  remarkable 
health  and  vigor.  It  is  time  the  farmer  should  break  away  from 
the  bonds  that  bind  him  to  the  miller  and  the  dealer  in  food 
supplies,  and  learn  to  produce  on  his  own  farm  nearly  all  that 
his  animals  need,  including  that  most  precious  and  costly  thing 
of  all,  the  protein  content  of  his  animals'  ration. 

Alfalfa  for  Sheep—  With  lambs  selling  for  $7.00  to$8.(X)  per 
head,  and  wool  soaring,  men  begin  to  ask  what  sort  of  foods  best 
agree  with  sheep.  The  answer  is,  that  if  there  is  one  thing  tiiat 
alfalfa  is  especially  suited  to,  it  is  to  the  flock.  Sheep  love 
alfalfa  above  all  other  forage,  and  for  a  good  reason.  It  is  the 
one  thing  best  suited  to  their  needs.  They,  more  than  other 
animals,  need  a  ration  rich  in  protein.  The  growing  lamb  needs 
it  to  build  his  muscles,  blood,  brain,  nerves,  and  bone.  Tiie 
pregnant  or  nursing  ewe  needs  it  to  replenish  her  system  fast 
drained  l)y  the  demands  of  her  offspring.  The  ram  needs  it  to 
keep  up  his  vigor.  The  wool-bearing  sheep,  and  all  breeds  bear 
some  wool,  need  alfalfa  because  it  has  in  it  the  peculiar  ele- 
ments that  make  for  growth  of  good,  healthy,  strong-Abe  red 
wool.  And  thus  all  sheep  crave  and  love  alfalfa  hay.  Think 
for  a  moment  what  it  means  for  an  animal  to  like  a  food. 
Liking  in  the  animal  world  is  not  whim  or  caprice.  Man  is  the 
one  animal,  save  a  worm,  that  chews  tobacco  —  the  only  animal 
that  drinks  whisky.  All  animals  crave  things  that  are  good 
for  them.  Why  do  they  hunger  for  fitting  foods  ?  Because  the 
very  cells  of  their  bodies  are  calling  to  be  built,  and  thus  instinct 
tells  them  that  tough  grasses  nourish  feebly  if  at  all,  that  tender, 
rich  alfalfa  leaves  and  stems  have  in  them  substances  that  when 
assimilated  go  directly  to  build  the  eager  body  cells,  to  reinforce 
the  muscles  and  strengthen  the  bones  and  link  together  the 
nerves.  It  is  a  fact  that  sheep  once  accustomed  to  a  diet  of 
alfalfa  will  scorn  prairie  hay  and  turn  from  good  red  clover; 
they  seek  that  which  nourishes  best  and  digests  most  easily, 
therefore  that  tastes  best  to  them. 

The  Pregnant  Ewe — The*  pregnant  ewe  needs  alfalfa  to 
make  grow  within  her  that  highly  organized  body  made  up 
mostly  of  protein  compounds,  her  unborn  lamb.  She  needs  it 
to  repair  the  waste  in  her  own  body.  She  needs  it  to  store  her 
udder  with  milk  against  the  time  of  coming  of  that  feeble  baby 
head  bunting  unsteadily  against  her  and  seeking  nourishment. 
With  alfalfa  in  abundance  she  comes  in  strong,  her  baby  lamb  is 
strong,  her  milk  flow  assured.  There  is  need  that  she  should 
have  not  quite  as  much  alfalfa  as  she  would  consume,  else  she 
might  overdo  the  matter,  and  the  lamb  be   born  too  large  for 


80  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

safe  deliver}'.     She  should  have  exercise  and  a  liberal  supph^  of 
fresh  air.    Then  her  safe  lambing  is  assured. 

The  Milking  Ewe — After  the  lamb  is  born  there  is  no  longer 
any  need  to  stint  the  ewe  in  the  amount  of  alfalfa  she  is  fed;  her 
own  instinct  will  tell  her  how  much.  And  it  should  be  of  the 
earliest  cuttings,  and  nicely  cured  with  the  leaves  all  on.  With 
this  alfalfa,  very  little  grain  indeed  will  be  needed  to  make  her 
give  liberally  of  milk  before  grass  comes.  And  after  the  first 
green  grass  of  spring  comes,  it  is  fine  if  she  can  have  her  regular 
ration  of  alfalfa  hay  to  supplement  the  grass,  prevent  scours,  and 
make  her  keep  strong  and  in  good  flesh.  Of  course  her  little 
lamb  will  eat  alfalfa  hay  from  the  time  it  is  three  days  old,  the 


Alfalfa  in  the  stack 

tender  leaves  first,  the  stems  later  on,  and  there  should  be  a 
special  rack  for  it  where  the  ewes  can  not  come  to  disturb. 
With  alfalfa  hay  and  a  little  corn  added,  soaking  both  in  mothers' 
milk,  the  baby  lambs  will  soon  attain  a  beautiful  baby  maturity 
that  will  enable  their  owners  to  sell  them  for  many,  many 
shekels  of  the  coin  of  the  realm. 

Alfalfa  for  Feeding  Lambs  —  For  fattening  lambs  born  on 
the  great  ranges  and  kept  there  till  weaning  time  in  the  fall, 
nothing  can  take  the  place  of  alfalfa  hay,  if  the  greatest  facility 
coupled  with  the  largest  profits  are  sought.  The  lamb  feeding 
business  lias  grown  to  magnificent  i)roportions  in  Colorado,  where 
the  abundant  streams  coursing  down  from  the  giant  snowcapped 


Foil  HETTEli  Cliurs  fil 


Rockies  spread  their  life  g"ivin«,^  waters  over  the  fertile  plains. 
There  alfalfa  is  at  its  best  estate,  and  nothin^^  else  is  (juite  so 
profitable,  savint^  perhaps  the  crops  that  naturally  follow  on 
alfalfa  sod— su^^ar  beets,  melons,  or  truck.  Enormous  amounts 
of  alfalfa  hay  are  stacked  up  on  these  plains  where  the  long-,  dry 
summers  favor  hay  making-  oi)erations  very  greatly,  and  wlien 
winter  comes  the  lambs  are  bought  and  placed  in  feed  lots,  and 
fed  till  spring  on  alfalfa  hay  with  a  little  Nebraska  or  Kansas 
corn  or  native  barley  or  wheat.  These  lambs  often  come  from 
the  ranges  half  starved,  having  perhaps  endured  long  drives  and 
been  held  in  corrals  and  shipping  pens  until  they  are  little  more 
than  bones  strung  on  end,  but  after  they  have  eaten  alfalfa  hay 
for  a  time  they  become  strong  once  more  and  ready  to  make 
good  use  of  corn. 

Alfalfa  Fed  Beef  Cattle  —  What  has  been  said  of  the  mare 
and  of  the  ewe  applies  as  well  to  the  beef  cow.  If  she  has  a 
sutficiency  of  alfalfa  in  winter  she  needs  no  grain  at  all.  After 
her  calf  comes  she  may  have  a  little  grain,  and  she  and  the  calf, 
all  the  alfalfa  they  care  to  take.  Her  calf  should  be  developed 
largely  on  alfalfa.  It  may  eat  alfalfa  hay  every  day  of  its  life, 
may  be  soiled  with  alfalfa  during  the  growing  season,  may  possibly 
be  grazed  on  alfalfa  pasture;  though  by  far  the  better  way  is  to 
cut  the  alfalfa  and  bring  it  to  the  calf.  By  this  manner  of  feed- 
ing good  flesh  is  produced  and  stature  assured.  It  is  too  common 
among  breeders  of  beef  cattle  in  the  corn  belt  to  confine  their 
animals  to  rations  composed  mainly  of  corn  and  grass,  neither 
having  in  them  enough  protein,  thus  there  is  a  steady  loss  in 
size,  in  ''scale,"  the  animals  soon  become  fat,  undersized,  ''bunty" 
and  "bunchy."  The  difficulty  is  that  you  have  been  asking 
hnpossibilities  of  the  animal,  asking  it  to  make  bricks  without 
straw,  or  to  build  without  bricks  at  all.  Therefore  breeders  of 
pedigreed  cattle  find  it  necessary  to  have  frequent  recourse  to 
Canadian  and  English  herds  to  maintain  the  character  of  their 
own.  In  these  other  lands  less  corn  and  more  clover  and  other 
foods  rich  in  protein  are  fed  than  in  our  own.  There  is  blood 
In  a  turnip.  There  is  blood  and  form  and  breeding  in  alfalfa,  a 
plant  that  gives  character  to  whatever  it  becomes.  Therefore, 
let  the  breeder  of  beef  cattle  see  to  it  that  alfalfa  is  one  of  his 
chief  reliances. 

Alfalfa  for  Feeding  Steers  — Fattening  cattle  might  be 
thought  to  be  an  exception  to  the  rule  heretofore  insisted  upon; 
they  are  desired  to  be  fattened  as  rapidly  as  possible,  why.  there- 
fore, need  they  be  fed  any  foods  rich  in  protein?  Why  not  feed 
them  in  the  old-fashioned  way  with  corn  alone,  to  quickly  cover 
their  ribs,  and  then  let  them  go  forward  to  market? 

The  theory  sounds  well,  but  does  not  work  well  in  practice. 
These  animals  find   waste  going  on    in    their   own  systems> 


82  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

Digestive  processes  require  muscular  action,  and  there  is  need 
to  repair  muscular  tissue.  ISTerve  force  is  to  be  maintained. 
Tiien,  after  all,  when  these  animals  come  to  the  feed  lot  they 
seldom  have  an  adequate  frame  of  lean  tissue  on  which  to  build 
the  fat.  Moreover,  the  modern  trade  demands  lean  flesh  inter- 
mixed with  fat,  not  fat  laid  on  in  masses.  And,  finally,  digestion 
goes  on  better  when  there  is  fed  a  variety  of  foods  containing 
both  fats  and  muscle  builders.  So  theory  backs  up  practice,  and 
that  tells  always  that  steers  fatten  more  quickly,  more  cheaply, 
and  better,  when  they  have  all  the  alfalfa  hay  that  they  want  in 
connection  with  their  corn.  It  is  astonishing  how  much  the 
cost  of  fattening  these  cattle  may  be  reduced  if  they  are  bought 
young  and  fed  plentifully  on  good  alfalfa  hay,  and  only  moderately 
with  corn.  And  when  this  beef  goes  to  the  killer  he  finds  it  by 
far  the  most  profitable.  There  is  no  doubt  of  the  great  place 
that  alfalfa  should  fill  in  the  cattle  feeders'  business.  The 
younger  the  cattle,  the  truer  they  are  "babies,"  and  the  better 
It  pays  to  feed  them  alfalfa  hay. 

Alfalfa  for  Pigs  —  The  problem  of  maintaining  brood  sows 
in  complete  health  in  winter  time  is  a  serious  one  in  the  corn 
belt.  They  are  voracious  and  must  be  fed.  If  fed  sufficient  corn 
to  satisfy  them  they  become  too  fat  and  have  weak  litters  of  pigs, 
or  so  unwieldy  that  they  destroy  their  offspring  through  their 
very  great  clumsiness.  If  they  are  deprived  of  sufficient  corn  to 
do  this  and  given  no  other  food,  they  do  not  keep  in  health,  since 
it  is  nature's  way  to  have  the  stomach  and  digestive  tracts  of 
the  sow  distended  w  ith  bulky  food.  Therefore  unless  this  is 
done  there  is  set  up  within  her  an  unnatural  craving  that  ends 
in  causing  her  to  eat  her  pigs  at  farrowing  time.  Now  if  she  is 
fed  a  liberal  allowance  of  alfalfa  hay  she  finds  in  it  nearly  all  the 
nourishment  that  she  needs,  she  finds  her  alimentary  canal  dis- 
tended comfortably,  she  is  satisfied  w  ith  same,  and  she  brings 
into  the  world  a  fine  litter  of  pigs,  and  has  milk  for  them.  She 
has  use  of  her  natural  instincts  and  seldom  destroys  her  pigs, 
either  by  accident  or  intent.  It  is  wise  to  allow  her  an  ear  or 
two  of  corn  each  day  in  addition  to  what  early  cut  alfalfa  hay 
she  will  consume. 

If  it  is  summer  time  and  she  can  liave  the  run  of  the  alfalfa 
field  she  will  thrive  with  very  little  grain  in  addition  until  the 
pigs  come.  After  that  time  it  will  pay  to  feed  her  a  little  more 
grain.  The  sucking  pigs  will  soon  learn  to  nip  the  tender  leaves 
and  stems,  and  that  will  add  greatly  to  their  thrift  and  growth. 
It  pays  largely,  however,  to  feed  corn  in  addition  to  alfalfa  pas- 
ture to  shotes.  It  is  not  necessary  to  feed  so  much  as  when  they 
do  not  have  access  to  alfalfa;  about  half  the  usual  amount  of 
grain  will  cause  a  fine,  thrifty  growth.  At  the  close  of  their  life 
period  it  is  well  to  give  whatever  amount  of  corn  they  will  eat 


FOB  BETTEIi  CHOPS  S3 

up  clean.  In  this  manner  is  made  the  cheapest  and  best  possi- 
ble pork.  Fed  in  tliis  way  an  acre  of  alfalfa  pastured  with  lio^rs 
has  made  a  clear  profit  in  one  year  of  as  much  as  $25.00. 

Grain  to  Feed  with  Alfalfa  —  Com  is  the  best  Single  grain 
to  be  fed  in  connection  with  alfalfa.  Corn  is  rich  in  fat  and  low 
in  protein.  Alfalfa  is  very  rich  in  protein  and  somewhat  low  in 
fat.  These  two  should  not  be  separated  where  flesh  is  desired. 
They  most  admirably  supplement  each  other.  Either  for  the 
fattening  lamb,  pig,  calf,  or  steer  the  ration  of  corn  and  alfalfa 
is  an  Ideal  one,  for  they  very  nearly  balance  each  other,  and  both 
can  be  produced  on  the  farm,  and  both  are  adapted  to  most 
parts  of  the  United  States  and  much  of  Canada. 

After  corn,  however,  come  barley  and  oats  and  wheat,  valu- 
able to  supplement  alfalfa,  though  of  the  three  barley  is  best, 
being  richer  in  fat  making  elements.  Very  good  lambs  are  made 
with  alfalfa  and  barley,  or  alfalfa  and  wheat,  or  alfalfa  and  oats, 
or  with  a  mixture  of  them  all  together.  Yet  when  corn  is  availa- 
ble at  nearly  the  same  price  it  is  very  much  to  be  preferred. 

Alfalfa  for  Poultry  —  The  alfalfa  field  is  a  rich  storehouse 
for  the  poultry  keeper.  In  summer  time  fowls  forage  far  and 
wide,  eating  the  tender  alfalfa  leaves,  rich  in  protein,  and  find- 
ing insects.  In  winter  time  fowls  will  consume  great  amounts 
of  alfalfa  leaves  and  the  fine  stems.  Sometimes  alfalfa  is  ground 
into  meal  for  poultry  and  swine.  This  is  well,  though  when  it 
is  in  large  supply  it  is  not  necessary  to  do  this,  as  it  is  cheaper 
to  waste  a  part  of  the  stems  than  to  grind  them  into  meal. 
Fowls  given  all  the  alfalfa  that  they  desire  are  more  healthy  and 
lay  many  more  eggs  than  without  it. 

How  Alfalfa  Hay  Builds  Soils  —  The  amount  of  fertilizing 
material  that  will  come  from  an  acre  of  first  class  alfalfa  is 
equal  to  what  would  be  bought  in  the  bag  for  $60.00.  Xow  if 
the  owner  of  a  depleted  soil  can  get  one  small  field  established 
in  alfalfa,  and  will  save  the  hay  and  feed  it  with  care,  saving  all 
of  the  manure  and  putting  it  out  upon  another  tract,  he  can 
thus  enrich  this  sufficiently  to  make  it  grow  alfalfa.  Kow  let 
him  have  the  two  fields  producing  alfalfa,  and  using  the  hay 
again  and  saving  the  manure  he  is  ready  to  enrich  the  third 
field.  And  thus  gradually  he  may  extend  the  area  of  his  alfalfa 
land  until  some  day,  if  that  man  has  faith  and  keeps  on,  some 
day  he  may  sweep  the  poverty  altogether  off  his  farm  and  find  it 
redeemed,  glorious  in  beauty  in  summer  time  and  yielding  him 
a  steady  and  very  great  profit.  Alfalfa  is  a  clover,  and  enriches 
soils  in  the  same  manner  that  all  clovers  do  by  the  growth 
upon  its  roots  of  bacteria,  that  have  the  powder  to  fix  nitrogon 
from  the  air.  Then  by  its  very  deep  roots  it  feeds  upon  the 
lower  depths  of  the  soil  and  draws  up  the  stores  of   fertility 


84  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

that  are  down  there.  This  may  not  be  so  well  understood  by 
readers  who,  living  in  the  arid  west,  find  all  of  their  land 
ready  to  take  alfalfa,  but  in  the  older  clays  of  the  rainy  east, 
little  land  is  now  naturally  in  condition  to  take  the  seed  until 
it  has  been  first  enriched. 

How  to  Start  an  Alfalfa  Field  —  ISTaturally  the  ways  of 
sowing  alfalfa  vary  with  the  location  and  climates.  In  the  arid 
West  it  is  a  simple  matter.  The  land  is  usually  plowed  in  win- 
ter or  early  spring,  w^orked  down  to  a  good  seedbed  and  the 
seed  sown  alone  in  middle  spring  time.  It  is  irrigated  occasion- 
ally according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  and  crops  are  often  taken 
from  it  the  same  year,  though  it  is  not  at  its  best  until  the 
third  year,  but  it  will  yield  very  heavy  crops  the  second  year. 
In  some  countries  it  is  a  practice  to  sow  a  light  seeding  of  oats 
with  the  alfalfa,  in  other  regions  this  will  not  do  since  the  oats 
will  lodge  or  bed  down  and  smother  the  slender  alfalfa  plants. 
In  general  the  better  practice  in  the  arid  region  is  to  sow  the 
alfalfa  alone. 

The  amount  of  seed  to  the  acre  varies  between  four  and 
thirty  pounds.  The  smaller  amount  of  seed  is  sometimes  sown 
when  seed  is  desired  from  it,  as  it  seeds  better  not  to  be  thick. 
There  are  14,448,000  seeds  in  a  bushel  of  alfalfa  seed.  Therefore 
to  sow  half  a  bushel  to  the  acre  would  put  166  seeds  to  the 
square  foot.  To  sow  fifteen  pounds  would  put  on  eighty-three 
seeds.  Seeing  that  this  is  true,  it  is  evident  that  it  is  more 
essential  to  have  good  seed  and  good  distribution  of  the  seed 
than  to  use  a  great  amount  of  seed.  About  twelve  to  sixteen 
plants  to  the  square  foot  are  all  that  will  ever  stand,  and  on 
rich,  deep  soils  they  will  not  long  endure  even  that  much 
crowding. 

Clipping  the  Young  Alfalfa —  Weeds  often  come  up  to  crowd 
the  young  alfalfa.  To  destroy  these  weeds  clip  the  field  with 
the  mower,  setting  it  to  run  as  close  to  the  ground  as  possible. 
There  may  come  a  yellowish  rust  that  attacks  the  leaves.  To 
destroy  this  clip  close  with  the  mower.  Therefore  when  pre- 
paring land  for  alfalfa,  see  to  it  that  the  field  is  left  as  smooth 
as  practicable,  so  that  the  mower  may  run  over  it  in  security. 
This  trouble  of  the  leaf  rust  will  not  be  so  much  in  evidence  in 
western  lands  as  in  the  lands  east  of  the  Mississippi  river. 

Pasturing  on  Young  Alfalfa  Seedings — It  is  not  well  to 
allow  any  animals  to  graze  upon  a  young  alfalfa  meadow.  They 
will  likely  do  far  more  damage  than  the  good  they  will  get  will 
pay  for.  When  it  is  time  for  the  alfalfa  to  be  clipped,  take  the 
mower  to  it,  and  if  there  is  enough  stuff  on  the  ground  to  be 
worth  while,  rake  it  up  and  take  it  away.  After  the  first  season, 
pasturing  may  be  resorted  to  if  it  is  thought  desirable,  and  lit- 
tle bad  result  will  be  seen  if  the  field  is  not  over  stocked. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


Seeding  Alfalfa  iu  the  Middle  West — In  the  region  from 
the  Mississippi  river  to  the  western  limit  of  tiie  rain  belt,  alfalfa 
thrives  well,  but  more  care  is  needed  to  get  stands  than  in  the 
arid  region  proper.  Spring  sowings  are  usual,  without  a  nurse 
crop.  A  better  plan  is  to  plow  the  land  early  in  Si)ring  or  dur- 
ing the  winter,  and  to  work  it  up  with  disk  or  harrow  as  soon 
as  the  growing  season  has  started  weed  life,  and  thereafter  to 
harrow  it  after  ever}'  rain  until  some  time  in  late  May  or  June, 
when  the  seed  may  be  sown  with  confidence  that  it  will  not  be 
choked  with  weeds,  and  that  there  will  be  enough  moisture 
stored  in  the  soil  to  carry  it  triumphantly  through  the  hot 
summer.  The  essential  thing  in  this  plan  is,  however,  to  be 
certain  to  harrow  thoroughly  after  every  rain,  not  only  to 
destroy  germinating  weeds,  but  to  conserve  all  of  the  moisture. 
When  the  seed  is  sown  it  should  be  sown  if  possible  with  a  drill, 
about  one  and  one-half  or  two  inches  deep  Earlier  in  the 
season  it  is  not  necessary  to  sow  it  so  deep.  The  depth  that 
alfalfa  seed  may  be  sown  varies  according  to  the  soil,  but  in 
most  of  this  region  the  soils  are  black,  loose  and  loamy. 

Field  Seeding  in  lo^va —  A  method  that  has  given  ver}'  fine 
results  for  the  past  few  years  has  been  practiced  in  Iowa ;  it  is 
the  sowing  after  a  crop  of  wheat  or  oats  in  mid-summer.  To 
accomplish  this  the  crop  of  wheat  or  oats  is  removed  as  early  as 
possible  and  at  once  the  land  is  plowed.  Each  day  what  is 
plowed  is  prepared  with  care  to  permit  the  escape  of  as  little 
moisture  as  possible.  The  alfalfa  seed  is  sown  alone.  It  needs 
no  clipping  that  year,  goes  safely  through  the  winter  and  the 
next  year  gives  three  large  crops  of  hay.  The  advantage  of  this 
method  is  that  there  is  no  loss  of  land  and  no  trouble  with 
weeds  or  fox  tail  grass,  the  great  pest  of  alfalfa  growers  in  the 
corn  belt.  Should  the  late  summer  prove  unusually  dry,  this 
method  might  not  be  successful,  and  in  case  it  is  to  be  sown  on 
clay  that  naturally  freezes  and  thaws  often  during  the  winter 
and  heaves  badly,  the  young  alfalfa  roots  might  not  be  strong 
enough  to  resist.  Thus  far,  however,  it  has  given  excellent 
results  at  the  Iowa  experiment  station  and  is  being  adopted  in 
other  parts  of  that  state.  It  is  probably  a  system  adapted  to 
Illinois  conditions,  especially  in  the  northern  part. 

Need  of  Manure  in  Iowa  and  Illinois — The  soils  of  this 
region  are  black  and  quite  rich.  And  yet  for  many  years  they 
refused  to  grow  profitable  crops  of  alfalfa.  It  was  found  to  be 
very  difficult  to  grow  alfalfa  upon  them.  When  it  did  grow  it 
seemed  often  to  be  without  nodules  upon  the  roots,  and  there- 
fore devoid  of  bacteria.  A  few  years  ago  it  was  discovered 
that  when  stable  manure  was  spread  upon  that  seemingly  fat, 
black  land,  alfalfa  was  easily  established  upon  it  and  inoculation 
came  naturally  and  abundantly,    Now  on  all  the  soils  of  this 


86  FOB  BETTER  CBOBS 

reg-ion  when  well  enough  drained,  alfalfa  may  be  very  profitably 
grown  if  care  is  taken  first  to  liberally  distribute  over  the  fields 
stable  or  yard  manure,  working  it  into  the  soil  to  create  there 
the  ferment  or  yeast  needed  in  that  soil  to  start  the  bacterial 
life,  and  after  it  is  once  established  it  will  endure  profitably 
for  a  number  of  years ;  how  long  it  is  not  yet  possible  to  say. 

Sowing  Alfalfa  on  Eastern  Clay  Soils  — The  best  method  of 
sowing  seems  to  be  to  break  the  land,  after  having  thoroughly 
well  manured  and  drained  it,  and  plant  one  year  to  corn,  keeping 
the  corn  clean  of  weeds  and  fox  tail  grass.  The  next  year  it 
should  be  again  plowed  as  easily  in  winter  or  spring  as  it  can  be 
and  deeper  than  ever  before.  After  danger  of  hard  freezing  is 
over,  say  in  late  April,  the  seed  is  sown  upon  a  nicely  pulverized 
seedbed,  at  the  rate  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  per  acre.  At 
the  same  time  a  bushel  of  beardless  spring  barley  is  sown  for  a 
nurse  crop.  Oats  are  not  admissible,  since  on  this  well  manured 
land,  they  usually  lodge  and  destroy  the  young  plants  beneath. 
The  barley  is  taken  off  when  ripe  for  grain  and  the  young  alfalfa 
is  clipped  at  the  same  time.  It  may  need  one  or  two  subsequent 
clippings,  and  it  may  not.  The  safe  rule  is  to  let  it  alone  as  long 
as  it  continues  to  grow  thriftily.  When  it  rusts  and  stops  grow- 
ing, or  when  fox  tail  grass  or  weeds  crowd  it,  it  should  be  mowed 
off  close.  The  object  of  the  barley  is  to  discourage  that  marauder, 
fox  tail  grass,  which  it  does  quite  effectually.  Thus  you  will 
gain  also  the  crop  of  barley  for  the  use  of  the  land.  It  is  not 
iisual  to  get  much  alfalfa  the  first  year  of  sowing.  If  any  of  the 
clippings  make  hay  enough  to  be  worth  raking  off,  save  them. 
Keep  all  animals  off  the  field  the  first  season. 

!Never  Allow  Animals  to  Tread  on  Alfalfa  Fields  in. 
Winter — It  is  sure  death  to  the  crowns  to  be  tramped  upon  in 
cold  weather,  especially  in  the  eastern  states.  Neither  should 
wagons  ever  pass  over  the  meadows  in  winter. 

Making  Alfalfa  Hay— The  time  to  cut  alfalfa  is  when  it  has 
begun  to  bloom,  the  lower  leaves  to  turn  yellow  and  drop  off, 
and  buds  to  start  out  from  the  base  of  the  stems.  Cut  then, 
for  it  has  in  it  the  greatest  amount  of  nutrients.  Allowed 
to  stand  longer,  the  stems  become  woody,  some  of  the  leaves 
are  lost,  and  the  hay  is  not  so  palatable,  nutritious,  nor  digest- 
ible. If  cut  too  soon,  before  the  buds  have  set  on  the  stems, 
sometimes  the  succeeding  crop  is  seriously  injured,  for  what 
reason  is  not  yet  known. 

Rush  the  Hay  Making— If  possible,  all  of  one  crop  should  be 
cut  down  within  a  week,  seeing  that  it  is  all  ready  at  one  time. 
Thus  the  hay  is  secured  in  best  condition  and  the  following  crop 
is  benefited  by  being  given  the  space  in  which  to  grow.  Wide 
cut  mowers  are  convenient  things  in  the  alfalfa  field.     After  the 


FOR  BETTKn  rh'(,j\s 


hay  is  laid  down  the  haymakers  should  keep  close  watx!h,  ari. 
us  soon  as  it  shows  sig-ns  of  drying-  and  before  the  leaves  will 
fall  from  the  stems,  it  should  be  raked  into  small  windrows  and 
permitted  to  cure  in  part  in  the  windrow,  or  in  the  cock, 
according  to  where  you  are  and  what  sort  of  climate  you  must 
work  in.  Alfalfa  dried  in  the  swath  loses  many  of  the  leaves 
when  raked. 

Side  Delivery  Hay  Rakes — These  machines  work  well  in 
alfalfa  meadows,  since  they  leave  the  hay  loose,  in  good  con- 
dition for  drying.  In  eastern  meadows,  under  showery  con- 
ditions, the  hay  is  best  cocked  up  in  small  cocks  while  it  is  yet 
tough.  Such  cocks  will  turn  rain  well  and  may  be  afterward 
opened  out  on  a  sunny  day,  or  they  may  become  dry  without 
opening.  Then,  too,  hay  caps  may  be  used  on  the  cocks  to 
advantage. 

The  Test  of  Sufficient  Dryness—Take  a  wisp  of  the  hay, 
choosing  a  damp  part  of  it.  and  twist  it  violently  into  a  rope.     If 


Motor  baling  press  in  operation 

no  moisture  can  be  made  to  exude  from  the  stems  the  hay  may 
be  put  into  the  mow  or  stack,  especially  if  many  tons  are  to  be 
put  together.  If  only  a  ton  or  two  will  be  put  into  a  small  mow 
it  should  be  well  dried  before  putting  away,  since  it  is  more  apt 
to  mould  and  become  musty  than  when  much  is  piled  together. 

Need  of  Drainage  in  Illinois  and  Parts  of  Iowa  and  Min- 
nesota— There  is  a  serious  need  in  much  of  the  black  soil  of 
this  corn  belt  of  more  complete  drainage  than  it  has  at  present, 
before  it  is  really  lit  for  alfalfa  culture.  Men  growing  only  corn, 
or  corn  and  oats  and  timothy  hay,  have  not  usually  a  vivid  con- 
ception of  how  wet  their  lands  are  during  a  good  part  of  the 
year.    In  Illinois    very   much   of   the   draining  that  has  been 


88  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

done  has  been  done  superficially,  with  tile  too  close  to  the 
surface.  These  should  be  deepened  so  that  none  of  them  are  at 
a  less  depth  than  thirty-six  inches,  and  if  they  can  be  put  down 
forty-eig-ht  inches  all  the  better.  Then  there  are  needed  other 
drains  between  the  ones  now  in  use.  When  this  is  done  and 
some  manure  made  use  of,  there  is  no  doubt  that  very  fine 
alfalfa  fields  can  be  maintained  in  Illinois. 

Comparison  of  Corn  and  Alfalfa — It  is  hard  for  a  farmer 
in  the  heart  of  the  corn  belt  to  consider  seriously  the  demands 
of  any  other  crop,  yet  if  he  will  study  alfalfa  a  little  he  will  see 
that  he  is  accepting  no  inferior  plant  when  he  puts  it  in  place 
of  some  of  his  corn  fields.  Alfalfa  will  make  on  good  land  in 
that  region  a  total  yield  during  the  season  of  from  four  to  eight 
tons  per  acre.  Taking  six  tons  as  a  standard,  and  calling  the 
hay  worth  $8.00  per  ton,  there  is  thus  derived  from  that  acre  a 
gross  revenue  of  $48.00.  To  equal  that  amount  the  field  must 
yield  120  bushels  of  corn  which  must  sell  at  forty  cents  per 
bushel.  Or,  put  it  according  to  the  amount  of  available  and 
digestible  carbohydrates  and  protein  produced  by  these  crops, 
the  alfalfa  will  yield  fully  three  times  as  much  protein  as  the 
corn  and  double  the  carbohydrates,  too!  Furthermore,  the 
alfalfa  is  not  depleting  the  soil,  while  corn  is  a  robber  crop. 

Alfalfa  Seeding  in  the  Eastern  Regions — East  of  Illinois 
begin  the  clays,  gravels,  and  loams  that  extend  through  Indiana, 
Ohio,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  the  sister  states.  Few  in- 
deed of  these  soils  are  ready  for  alfalfa  in  their  natural  state, 
yet  all  of  them  will  yield  it  most  profitably  when  made  fit  for 
it.  The  requirements  of  alfalfa  in  these  states  are  simple.  It 
needs,  first,  to  have  the  land  drained,  if  it  is  not  naturally  dry. 
It  requires  that  the  land  be  sweet.  In  parts  of  Indiana,  north- 
ern Ohio,  in  some  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  York  there  are  acid 
soils.  These  must  first  be  sweetened  with  lime  before  they  will 
grow  good  alfalfa.  The  third  requirement  is  that  these  soils  be 
stored  with  organic  matter,  with  humus.  That  means  that 
they  must  be  spread  over  with  stable  manure.  After  these 
three  conditions  have  been  met  there  is  nothing  but  a  little 
knowledge  of  the  plant  necessary  to  make  it  thrive  admirably. 
The  farm  on  which  the  writer  lives  grows  now  annually  about 
350  tons  of  alfalfa  hay,  though  ten  years  ago  little  of  its  area 
was  adapted  to  alfalfa  at  all.  Tile  underdrains  and  manure 
have  made  its  growth  possible,  and  it  has  proven  very  profit- 
able. 

Plowing  Alfalfa  Sod  —  Alfalfa  sod  is  very  hard  to  plow; 
with  indifferent  tools,  impossible.  It  can  be  done  with  comfort, 
but  it  requires,  first,  a  good  team  of  three  strong  horses;  next,  a 
plow,  preferably  a  walking  plow,  in  good  repair,  with  a  very 
sharp  share.     Next,  it  needs  a  sober  and  Christian  hearted  man. 


90  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

And  it  is  a  great  aid  to  carry  a  file,  and  frequently  file  to  a 
knife  edge  the  cutting  edge  of  the  share.  A  little  Y  shaped  wing 
running  horizontally  out  from  the  landside  under  the  edge  of 
the  uncut  land  about  three  inches  is  a  great  help,  since  it  makes 
the  plow  run  steadily  and  renders  the  next  furrow  far  easier  to 
turn. 

Some  of  the  alfalfa  roots  will  not  be  cut  off,  and  they  will  live 
over,  doing  no  harm  in  the  succeeding  crop.  All  that  are  cut 
off  will  probably  die,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  alfalfa  spreading 
beyond  the  original  limits  of.  its  field. 

Alfalfa  Makes  Little  Seed  in  Rainy  Regions  — It  seeds 
best  in  the  dry  parts  of  Kansas,  Nebraska  and  westward. 
Usually  the  first  crop  is  allowed  to  make  seed.  It  is  easily 
threshed,  and  in  favorable  seasons  yields  heavily,  from  one  to 
fifteen  bushels  per  acre  being  reported.  The  only  seed  worth 
much  is  the  common  alfalfa,  but  it  is  wise  not  to  get  seed 
from  a  latitude  south  of  you. 

Inoculation  —  Alfalfa  will  not  thrive  without  the  right 
bacteria  upon  the  roots.  Nor  will  mil  k  sour  without  the  bacteria 
of  souring  being  present.  And  yet  milk  sours,  and  yet  women 
folks  do  not  add  bacteria,  knowingly,  to  their  milk.  Never- 
theless milk  will  sour  more  rapidly  if  a  little  sour  milk  is  added 
to  the  sweet  at  milking  time.  So  alfalfa  will  surely  become 
inoculated  by  natural  processes  if  grown  on  fit  soil,  but  it  will 
the  sooner  become  inoculated  if  earth  from  an  old  field  is  dried 
in  the  shed  and  pulverized  and  sown  broadcast  over  the  field 
and  harrowed  in.  There  are  also  cultures  available  that  are 
used  to  inoculate  the  seed.  They  are  sometimes  of  use.  They 
often  fail  to  be  of  use,  through  some  defect  in  the  method.  It 
is  not  worth  while  to  bother  with  cultures.  It  is  worth  while 
when  sowing  alfalfa  on  land  that  has  never  had  it  before  to  use 
soil  from  either  an  old  alfalfa  field  or  a  sweet  clover  (melilotus) 
patch.  The  bacteria  that  live  on  melilotus  are  the  same  that 
live  upon  alfalfa. 

Do  not  sow  either  alfalfa  or  bacteria  upon  soils  not  a  fit 
home  for  bacteria.  That  means  that  the  land  should  be  dry, 
sweet,  and  stored  with  vegetable  matter. 

Some  Other  Things  About  Alfalfa  —  Bees  love  the  blooms, 
especially  in  the  western  lands.  Alfalfa  honey  is  prime.  Alfalfa^ 
covers  the  land  with  perennial  beauty.  It  makes  work  for 
many  laborers  to  gather  the  harvests  and  to  feed  the  hay.  It 
causes  new  homes  to  spring  up,  puts  paint  on  school  houses,  and 
sends  little  urchins  trudging  along  country  lanes  with  full 
dinner  pails  and  smiling  faces.  It  is  one  of  God's  richest  gifts 
to  man 


The   Wheat   Crop 


PREPARATI0:N^  of  seed  bed— selection  of  SEED- 
VARIETIES— soil  CONDITIONS,  ETC. 


By  Waldo  F.   Brown 

Farm  Specialist,  Oxford,  Ohio 

Revised  by  A.  E.  and  F.  C.  Brown 


X  World  Problem — Wheat  production 
is  a  world  problem.  American  investi- 
gators have  been  at  work  for  years  upon 
this  subject.  As  a  country  grows  older 
the  food  supply  becomes  a  more  complex 
problem.  New  soils  give  back  in  prodigal 
measure,  food  for  the  eater  and  seed  for 
the  sower.  There  are  certain  underlying 
^  ,  ^^  ^^^^,  principles  in  wheat  production  appli- 
Hflk  JK^J^Hlj  cable  to  all  soils  and  all  countries,  and 
■■Bk'^^^^HH  American  investigators  have  been  busy 
collecting  and  classifying  data  from  all 
ages  and  all  countries  for  the  benefit  of  the  American  farmer 
in  his  search  for  the  best  methods  of  seeding,  best  varieties  of 
seed,  and  most  profitable  ways  of  handling  the  wheat  crop.  The 
farmers  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  find  they  can 
produce  the  best  crops  by  early  summer  plowing  and  continual 
working  of  the  seed-bed  until  time  for  planting;  while,  with 
worn-out  soils  where  the  problem  of  returning  lost  fertility  is 
added,  the  question  becomes  a  scientific  one,  and  the  farmer  may 
turn  to  our  agricultural  experts  for  help. 

Some  of  the  essentials  to  be  considered  in  successful  wheat 
growing  are  natural  or  artificial  drainage,  a  compact  seed  bed, 
intelligent  warfare  against  insect  enemies,  and  a  selection  of 
seed  suitable  to  locality  and  soils.  A  wise  rotation  of  crops  is 
also  important  in  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  In  some 
sections  a  three-year  rotation  is  followed  with  success;  in  others 
a  five-year  rotation  gives  paying  returns. 

■  Rotation  of  Crops  —  Many  farmers  follow  the  practice  of 
seeding  after  corn  where  a  three-year  rotation  of  wheat,  clover, 
and  corn  is  followed.  In  any  rotation,  one  great  advantage  is 
the  fact  that  different  crops  make  available  different  elements 
in  the  soil.  For  instance,  manure  applied  to  the  corn  crop  is 
made  available  for  the  wheat  crop  that  follows;  and  clover  un- 
locks hidden  treasures  of  the  earth  for  crops  that  follow  it. 

91 


92  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

Wheat  and  clover  are  inseparable  in  many  sections,  and 
no  cheaper  or  better  fertilizer  can  be  obtained.  There  are  a 
number  of  leguminous  plants  valuable  for  green  manuring  — 
clover,  cowpeas,  soy  beans,  Canada  field  peas,  and  vetch  —  but  all 
things  considered,  clover  stands  easily  at  the  head  of  the  list. 
Clover  produces  a  netv^^ork  of  roots  which  penetrate  the  soil  far 
below  the  reach  of  the  plow  and  contain  more  organic  matter 
than  the  foliage.  The  fact  that  a  profitable  crop  of  hay  may  be 
cut  and  still  leave  fertility  in  the  soil  equal  to  ten  or  twelve 
loads  of  stable  manure  to  the  acre,  makes  clover  an  ideal  crop 
for  keeping  up  the  supply  of  plant  food.  Even  when  the  crop 
is  cut  once  for  hay  and  once  for  seed  the  land  is  greatly  bene- 
fited. 

Corn  fields  that  are  to  be  seeded  to  wheat  should  be  given  as 
near  absolutely  clean  culture  as  is  possible,  and  laid  by  as  late 
as  the  condition  of  the  corn  will  permit.  If  this  is  done,  it 
will  not  be  necessary,  in  ordinary  seasons,  to  plow  the  land 
before  seeding  to  wheat.  Whether  to  seed  in  the  standing  corn 
or  after  it  is  shocked  has  been  the  subject  of  a  number  of 
experiments,  and  the  conclusions  are  in  favor  of  shocking  the 
corn;  as  then  the  ground  can  be  put  in  shape  with  the  harrow 
or  cultivator  and  the  roller  or  drag,  making  a  mellow,  well 
stirred  seed  bed  on  the  compacted  corn  ground  below. 

Plant  Food  Elements— The  question  naturally  arises,  What 
elements,  besides  nitrogen,  does  clover  add  to  the  soil?  The  analy- 
sis given  below  of  the  clover  plant  —  roots,  stem,  leaves,  and 
flowers,  taken  at  a  time  when  the  flowers  had  begun  to  fade  — 
gave  the  following  result:  (In  order  to  obtain  the  mineral 
elements  the  plant  was  reduced  to  ashes.) 

Phosphoric  acid,  5.82 

Lime,  35.02 

Potash,  18.44 

Soda,  2.79 

Sulphuric  acid,  3.01 

Earthy  matter,  34.92 

100.00 
From  this  table,  the  large  proportion  of  lime  and  potash  are 
seen  at  once,  and  they  are  two  important  elements  in  wheat 
production.  To  get  the  best  results  from  the  clover  crop,  a 
good  stand  is  necessary,  and  this  is  much  easier  to  obtain  on 
fields  where  the  grain  has  been  drilled  instead  of  broadcasted. 
It  is  often  advisable  to  make  two  sowings  of  clover  to  overcome 
adverse  conditions,  if  either  seeding  fails  to  make  a  good  stand. 
Some  soils  are  not  adapted  to  growing  clover;  usually  this  is 
caused  by  too  much  acid  in  the  soil.  The  application  of  lime 
will  correct  this;  or  other  legumes  than  clover  may  be  substi- 
tuted, as  they  will  grow  where  clover  will  not. 


FOR  lurrTEi:  cuors  93 

Fertilizers  — Many  farmers  believe  that  there  is  no  fertihzer 
so  valuable  as  stable  manure.  The  Ohio  experiment  station  iias 
taken  up  this  question  as  applied  to  the  wheat  crop.  They  have 
found  that  a  ton  of  averajje  farm  manure  taken  from  the  open 
barn-yard,  contains  nine  pounds  of  nitrogen,  ten  pounds  of  po- 
tassium and  from  three  to  four  of  phosphorus,  a  less  proportion 
of  phosphorus  than  is  usually  needed  on  wheat  land.  Ac*cordin{,^ly 
tlie  experiment  was  tried  of  reinforcing  the  stable  manure  with 
pliosphorus,  the  material  used  being  finely  ground  phosphate 
rock,  known  as  "floats,''  and  acid  phosphates,  using  forty  pounds 
of  either  to  a  ton  of  stable  manure.  This  manure  was  spread  on 
clover  sod  and  plowed  under  for  corn,  w^heat  following  the  corn, 
and  clover  following  the  wheat  in  a  three  year  rotation,  no  other 
fertilizer  being  used  for  tlie  three  crops.  The  results  fully  jus- 
tified tlie  use  of  the  phosphorus.  Lands  already  brought  to  a 
state  of  average  fertility,  yielding  fifty-seven  bushels  of  corn  per 
acre  and  eighteen  of  wheat,  were  still  further  improved  by  this 
addition  of  "floats,"'  or  acid  phosphate  to  the  stable  manure, 
producing  sixty-two  bushels  of  corn  and  twenty-four  bushels  of 
wheat  to  the  acre.  Stable  manure  that  has  not  been  exposed  to 
the  weather  gives  still  better  results  when  combined  with  these 
fertilizers— and  applying  it  with  a  manure  spreader  will  insure 
maximum  results. 

Compacting  the  Soil — When  cutting  the  grain,  the  sickle 
should  be  set  high  in  order  that  the  stubble  may  protect  the 
clover  plants.  Care  must  be  taken  in  giving  back  to  the  land 
any  growth  of  green  manure.  A  heavy  growth  plowed  under 
just  before  seeding  time  will  almost  certainly  insure  a  failure  of 
the  succeeding  crop.  This  is  because  a  heavy  growth  of  any 
kind  when  first  plowed  under  produces  a  loose  soil  which  will 
hold  water  and  freeze  and  thaw  to  a  greater  depth  than  well 
compacted  soil.  To  prepare  an  ideal  seed  bed  for  fall  sowing  of 
wheat  the  ground  should  be  plowed  as  soon  as  the  hay  crop  is 
cut.  The  depth  to  plow  will  be  determined  by  the  character  of 
the  soil.  To  obtain  the  best  results  from  green  manuring,  the 
soil  should  be  compacted  as  soon  after  plowing  as  possible.  If 
but  one  team  can  be  used  in  preparing  the  land,  the  plow  and 
roller  should  be  used  alternately,  leaving  the  land  both  plowed 
and  rolled  at  the  end  of  each  day.  If,  however,  weather  condi- 
tions are  favorable  and  the  ground  moist,  the  roller  need  not  be 
used  at  once,  but  where  the  land  is  dry  and  the  sun  hot,  prompt 
rolling  is  important.  It  is  wonderful  what  power  fine  soil  has 
to  retain  moisture.  A  field  that  has  been  thoroughly  compacted 
and  mellowed  on  the  surface  can  be  seeded  after  a  shower  that 
would  have  little  or  no  effect  on  a  cloddy  surface.  The  lack  of 
available  moisture  in  the  soil  robs  the  plant  of  much  fertility, 
and  will  cause  poor  crops  where  heavy  ones  might  be  produced 
by  attention  to  this  one  point. 


94 


FOR  IIKTTKR  moi'S  U5 

Care  of  the  Field  —  If  for  any  reason  it  is  impossible  to  j)lovv 
early  for  wlieal,  and  the  clover  plant  has  been  left  on  the  i^round, 
tlie  clover  should  be  mowed  and  drawn  off  the  field  or  burned 
before  plowing.  It  is  then  better  to  make  a  shallow  seed  bed, 
say  four  or  five  inches,  compacting-  the  soil  as  thorouglily  as 
possible.  Burning  the  fields  before  plowing  accomplishes  two 
purposes:  first,  the  removal  of  too  great  a  bulk  of  vegetable  mat- 
ter; second,  the  destruction  of  many  insect  pests.  Experiments 
have  shown  tliat  cut-worms  are  among  the  pests  destroyed  in 
this  way. 

Many  farmers  consider  the  tramping  af  land  by  cattle  a  great 
factor  in  compacting  the  soil.  Where  fields  can  be  pastured  be- 
fore plowing  for  wheat,  the  double  benefit  is  secured  of  adding 
fertility  in  the  form  of  the  manure  produced,  and  compacting 
the  soil.  On  virgin  soils  the  practice  is  almost  universal  of  pas- 
turing the  wheat  itself  while  the  plants  are  young.  Experience, 
how^ever,  does  not  show  that  pasturing  wheat  is  an  unmixed 
blessing.  This  is  probably  owing  to  the  fact  that  cattle  are 
left  in  the  field  when  it  is  too  wet,  and,  under  these  conditions, 
both  wheat  and  fields  are  injured.  Taking  into  account,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  fact  that  this  pasture  is  often  worth  a  dollar  an 
acre  to  the  farmer  as  food  for  his  stock,  the  yield  of  wheat  need 
not  be  increased  to  make  pasturing  profitable.  Spring  pastur- 
ing seems  less  objectionable  than  fall,  and  many  think  it  aids  in 
reducing  insect  pests.  Letters  from  twenty  different  Kansas 
farmers  in  regard  to  pasturing  wheat,  show  eighteen  out  of 
twenty  in  favor  of  it,  and  they  estimate  the  value  at  from  fifty 
cents  to  three  dollars  an  acre. 

Plo^v^ing  for  Wheat  —  In  sections  of  our  country  where  new 
soils  are  available  and  the  land  has  not  been  cropped,  the  plow- 
ing for  wheat  should  be  shallow,  only  a  few  inches  the  first 
year,  and  increased  from  year  to  year  until  the  desired  depth  is 
reached.  An  interesting  fact  about  seeding  on  new  soil  is  the 
length  of  time  profitable  crops  may  be  grown  without  barnyard 
manure  or  fertilizers  of  any  kind,  and  with  no  rotation  of  crops. 
In  some  instances  wheat  has  followed  wheat  for  ten  or  twelve 
years  with  no  decrease  in  yield.  One  account  tells  of  wheat 
lodging  and  enough  being  left  on  the  ground  to  seed  the  entire 
field,  and  a  heavy  crop  being  harvested  the  following  season 
without  the  use  of  any  implement  until  harvest  time.  Our 
country  is  fast  approaching  the  time  when  such  tales  will  seem 
incredible.  The  countries  of  the  old  world  will  have  to  be  our 
teachers  to  show  us  the  secret  of  maximum  yields  on  long 
cropped  soils. 

Proper  Tillage  — Bearing  in  mind  that  the  preparation  of 
the  seed  bed  for  wheat  is  the  only  cultivation  that  can  be  given 
to  insure  a  good  crop,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  every- 


96  FOB  BETTER  CROPS 

thing  that  will  contribute  to  this  end  should  be  done.  The 
maxim,  ''Tillage  is  manure,"  should  also  be  kept  in  mind,  and 
where  stable  manure  is  not  abundant,  the  fact  should  be  empha- 
sized that  too  much  work  cannot  be  done  in  preparing  the  wheat 
field.  If  a  soil  is  kept  fine  for  two  months  or  more  during  the 
heat  of  summer,  it  becomes  vitalized  and  enriched,  so  the  seed 
truly  falls  on  good  ground  and  sometimes  brings  forth,  if  not 
"a  hundred  fold,"  an  abundant  crop.  It  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  all  work  of  preparing  the  seed-bed  be  done  at 
the  best  possible  time.  There  are  generally  two  or  three  days 
of  cool  weather  after  a  rain,  and  this  is  the  time  when  the 
teams  should  be  kept  busy  early  and  late.  The  land  then  works 
to  the  best  possible  advantage,  and  a  team  will  work  for  twelve 
or  fourteen  hours  with  less  strain  than  they  will  for  eight  hours 
when  the  ground  is  dry  and  hard  and  the  mercury  up  in  the 
nineties.  Again,  when  pulverizing  the  land  just  before  seeding, 
there  are  times  when  one  day's  work  will  accomplish  more  than 
three  a  little  later.  There  is  a  time  after  each  rain  when  the 
ground  is  in  ideal  condition,  and  the  farmer  can  harrow  a  large 
area  in  a  day  and  put  the  land  in  the  best  condition  to  be 
benefited  in  the  highest  degree  by  sun  and  air.  Stirring  the  sur- 
face checks  evaporation  also.  A  few  days'  neglect,  and  all  these 
advantages  are  lost,  moisture  is  carried  off,  a  crust  forms,  and 
the  land  becomes  dry  and  cloddy. 

Drainage  —  Where  land  is  not  w^ell  drained,  much  good  may 
often  be  accomplished  by  opening  with  the  plow  little  outlets, 
at  every  low  place  in  the  field,  to  prevent  water  standing  on  any 
part  of  it.  Open  furrows  are  not  desirable  in  a  wiieat  field,  as 
they  may  be  troublesome  in  the  use  of  machines  or  cause  wash- 
ing, but  they  are  better  than  an  excess  of  water.  As  a  farmer 
prospers,  nothing  should  appeal  to  him  more  than  the  desira- 
bility of  drainage,  and  as  soon  as  possible  the  farm  should  have 
a  complete  system  of  underdrains. 

Selection  of  Seed — The  selection  of  seed  wheat  is  an  ever 
present  problem.  The  long  list  of  old  and  new  varieties  is 
bewildering,  and  the  claims  for  some  of  these  are  so  enticing,  that 
the  farmer  is  perplexed  to  make  a  selection.  A  study  of  local 
conditions  and  varieties  will  often  result  in  finding  the  best 
seed  wheat  near  home,  as  wheat  usually  suffers  more  or  less 
deterioration  from  change  of  locality.  The  points  to  be  kept  in 
mind  in  selecting  a  new  variety  are  as  follows :  A  full  grain  of 
good  weight,  stiff  straw  with  ability  to  stand  up  in  adverse 
weather,  a  compact  head  ripening  early  and  not  liable  to  shat- 
ter good  bread  quality,  and  power  to  resist  insect  enemies.  A 
variety  that  tillers  freely  has  greater  chances  to  escape  destruc- 
tion at  the  hands  of  its  enemies. 


FOR  nKTTEli  CROPS  07 

The  demands  of  the  available  market  will  determine  whether 
to  grow  hard  or  soft  wheat.  In  many  sections  of  the  country 
the  hard  wheat  takes  the  lead,  and  mills  are  specially  e<iui|)i)ed 
for  grindinj,^  it.  The  soil  on  which  wheat  is  S(jwn  has  been 
found  to  modify  the  character  of  the  grain.  Hard  wheat  sown 
from  year  to  year  on  sandy  soil  gradually  becomes  softer,  while 
the  soft  varieties  taken  from  sandy  soil  and  grown  on  uplands, 
become  harder.  As  seasons  change,  and  market  demands  alter, 
it  may  be  necessary  to  modify  the  type  of  seed  selected.  It  may 
take  a  series  of  years  to  establish  the  desired  type,  but  when 
obtained,  it  will  repay  the  effort  expended.    Where  it  is  desired 


The  spring  tooth  harro>v-  can  be  used  to  ^ood  advantai^e 

to  test  varieties  from  a  distance,  only  a  small  area  should  be 
planted,  and  this,  if  successful,  will  furnish  seed  for  a  larger  area 
the  following  year;  while  if  unsuccessful,  the  smaller  the  plot 
the  better. 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Sow— After  the  seed  wheat  has  been 
selected,  the  question  naturally  arises,  how  much  seed  shall  be 
sown  per  acre?  Individuals  and  experiment  stations  have  been 
at  work  on  this  question  for  years.  The  conclusions  are  varied. 
In  a  series  of  experiments  wliere  eight  test  plots  were  seeded 
with  from  three  to  eight  pecks  per  acre,  the  minimum  yield  was 
from  three  pecks  and  tjie  maximum  from  five  and  a  half,  the 
variation  in  yield  being  over  four  bushels  per  acre.  In  a  series 
of  reports  from  farmers  who  operated  large  wheat  farms,  the 
amount  of  seed  used  was  from  three  to  eight  pecks  per  acre.  In 
a  list  of  reports  from  twenty  of  these  farmers,  one  used  three 
pecks;  eleven  used  four  pecks;  six  used  five  pecks;  one  used  six 
pecks;  and  one  eight  pecks.    The  average  yield  from  these  sow- 


98 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


ings  was  a  little  more  than  seventeen  bushels  per  acre,  the 
largest  being  twenty-eight  bushels  and  the  smallest  ten.  The 
highest  yields  were  obtained  where  five  pecks  of  seed  were  used 
and  the  lowest  from  four  pecks.  These  are  average  yields  for  a 
series  of  years  on  good  land,  and  show  what  farmers  have  actually 
done  on  a  large  scale.  From  the  many  experiments  tried  to 
determine  what  amount  of  seed  to  sow  per  acre  to  insure  the 
largest  yield,  it  has  been  found  that  on  most  soils  five  and  one- 
half  pecks  give  the  maximum  result.  Heavier  seeding  may  be 
necessary  on  worn-out  soil,  while  four  to  four  and  one-half  pecks 
will  give  an  abundant  yield  on  fertile  land. 


The  smoothing  harrow^  adds  the  final  touch  of  preparation 


Time  of  Seeding— After  the  preparation  of  the  soil,  the 
selection  of  seed,  and  the  decision  as  to  how  much  seed  to  sow 
per  acre,  comes  the  important  question  of  time  of  seeding. 
Shall  we  sow  early  and  court  the  ravages  of  insect  pests?  Shall 
we  sow  late  and  take  the  chances  that  growth  will  be  sufficient 
to  carry  the  wheat  through  the  perils  of  winter?  No  invariable 
rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  date  of  seeding,  as  weather  conditions 
and  other  factors,  over  which  man  has  no  control,  may  determine 
the  possibilities  at  seeding  time.  Much,  however,  can  often  be 
done  to  modify  adverse  conditions.  In  a  time  of  drought,  a 
thoroughly  prepared  seed-bed  with  a  well  pulverized  surface  is 
of  even  more  importance  than  under  ordinary  conditions;  as  the 
mellow  soil  at  the  surface  acts  as  a  mulch  to  retain  moisture 
and  prevents  evaporation  from  below,  and  even  a  slight  shower 
will  put  the  soil  in  condition  to  receive  the  seed.  If  the  land, 
under  such  conditions,  is  only  half  prepared  and  seeded  before 
sufficient  rain  has  fallen,  almost  certain  failure  is  courted. 


FOR  BETTER  (JROPS  0!J 

Long-  years  of  experience  and  observation  seem  to  point  to 
early  seeding  rather  tlian  late,  as  most  often  successful.  Many 
of  the  experiment  stations  have  prepared  tables  for  their  own 
states  and  made  suggestions  for  exceptional  seasons,  giving 
approximate  dates  for  sowing  in  each  section  of  the  state.  In 
southeastern  Ohio,  from  the  10th  to  the  20th  of  September 
usually  gives  the  best  results,  though  later  dates  are  suggested 
in  some  seasons. 

Advantages  of  Using  the  Drill —  Whether  to  sow  our  grain 
broadcast  or  with  a  drill  is  hardly  a  debatable  question  in  recent 
years,  the  advantages  in  favor  of  the  use  of  a  good  drill  are  now 
so  well  recognized.  By  means  of  the  drill  the  seed  is  put  in 
evenly,  at  a  uniform  depth;  the  fertilizer  is  placed  just  where 
it  will  be  soonest  available  for  the  growth  of  the  plant;  and 
the  ground  is  left  in  small  ridges  between  the  rows.  These 
ridges  hold  the  snow  so  that  often  a  light  covering  will  protect 
the  plant  in  the  furrows.  Another  advantage  from  these  ridges 
comes  when  the  freezing  and  thawing  of  miJd  days  causes  the 
earth  to  crumble  on  the  ridges  and  fall  into  the  furrows  around 
the  roots  of  the  wiieat.  Farmers  who  drag  or  roll  their  fields 
after  drilling  the  wheat  lose  these  advantages.  All  work  of  that 
kind  should  be  done  before  seeding. 

Depth  to  Set  Drill  —  The  depth  at  wiiich  the  drill  should  be 
set  for  wheat  has  been  much  discussed.  If  weather  conditions 
could  be  foreseen,  it  would  be  the  part  of  wisdom  to  seed  deeply 
in  dry  w^eather,  and  nearer  the  surface  in  wet  weather.  Experi- 
ments in  deep  and  shallow  seeding  show  the  best  results  from 
seed  covered  from  one  and  a  half  to  three  inches.  The  following 
table  shows  the  result  of  experiments  conducted  by  the  agricul- 
tural college  at  Lansing,  Michigan,  and  emphasizes  the  advan- 
tages of  shallow  covering : 

Proportion  of 
Depth  Time  in  coming  up  seed  that  grew 

i-inch  11  days  I 

1  "  12    "  all 

2  inches  18    "  I 

3  "  20  "  i 

4  "  21  "  i 

5  "  22  "  f 

6  "  23  "  i 

The  report  showed  that  the  plants  from  deep  sown  wheat 
were  weak.  They  had  rooted  deeply,  and  later  put  out  a  new  set 
of  roots  near  the  surface  and  the  stem  below  rotted  off,  leaving  the 
plants  to  start  a  new  growth  from  the  second  set  of  roots,  which, 
of  course,  made  them  later  and  weakened  them.  This  would 
not  have  been  the  case  with  wheat  drilled  at  the  proper  depth. 


Plot  No. 

Depth 

1 

1  inch 

2 

li  to  2  in. 

3 

2iin. 

4 

3    in. 

5 

3|in. 

6 

4  to  4i  in. 

100  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

Yield  per  Acre  — Another  table,  taken  from  the  report  of 
the  Kansas  experiment  station,  not  only  shows  the  time  of 
germination  and  proportion  of  seed  that  grew,  but  follows  the 
crop  to  time  of  harvest  and  gives  the  yield  per  acre  on  six  experi- 
mental plots. 

stand  Wt.  per  bu.  Yield  per  acre,  bus. 

Fair  60|  lbs.  29.69 

Fairly  good  60   lbs.  30.64 

Good  591  lbs.  31.55 

60  lbs.  30.45 

60ilbs.       '  30.51 

60  lbs.  29.91 

The  agricultural  department  calls  especial  attention  to  the 
importance  of  drilling  the  rows  of  wheat  east  and  west,  in  seed- 
ing wheat  in  semi-arid  regions,  as  the  prevailing  winds  will  then 
drive  the  snow  and  dirt  into  and  around  the  drills  instead  of 
out  of  them.  From  practical  experiments  this  has  been  found 
to  be  a  point  of  importance  in  other  sections.  Another  reason 
for  this  practice  is  that  rows  running  north  and  south  receive 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  between  the  ridges,  while  in  rows 
running  east  and  west  the  ridges  tend  to  shade  the  plants.  It 
is  not  so  much  freezing  that  injures  the  wheat,  but  freezing  and 
thawing  to  such  a  depth  that  the  roots  of  the  plant  are  dis- 
turbed, and  anything  that  will  check  frequent  thawing  is  bene- 
ficial. 

Enemies  of  Wheat— The  story  of  the  wheat  plant  would  be 
incomplete  without  some  reference  to  the  enemies  that  attack 
the  wheat  from  the  time  the  seed  is  cast  into  the  ground  until 
the  day  it  is  used  commercially.  The  wheat  midge,  Hessian  fly, 
chinch  bug,  wheat  plant  louse,  wheat  straw  worm,  wheat  bulb 
worm,  army  worm,  andsawflies  lie  in  wait  for  the  growing  plant, 
while  smut  and  rust  get  in  their  deadly  work  and  weevil  invades 
the  storage  bins. 

How  shall  this  host  be  combated  ?  Anything  that  can  be  done 
to  start  a  vigorous  growth  in  the  fall  will  aid  in  keeping  down 
these  insect  pests  and  protect  the  plant  from  ravages  by  fungus 
enemies.  It  is  even  better  to  ignore  the  possible  ravages  of  the 
Hessian  fly,  and  get  an  early  vigorous  growth  on  the  wheat 
fields  in  the  fall  than  to  allow  late  sown  plants  to  go  into  the 
winter  with  a  sickly  growth  unable  to  withstand  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  winter.  By  making  the  best  possible  seed  bed,  by  the 
judicious  use  of  stable  manure  and  commercial  fertilizers,  by 
drilling  the  seed,  by  underdraining  and  a  wise  rotation  of  crops, 
the  best  conditions  possible  are  secured  for  a  vigorous  growth 
of  the  wheat  plant  and  consequent  strength  to  resist  its  many 
enemies. 

Some  enemies  of  the  wheat  crop  have  not  been  mentioned  — 
in  fact  their  name  is  legion  —  but  many  so  seldom  harm  the  crop 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS;  101 

that  time  and  space  need  not  be  piven  them.  vVhen  hJiiI  arid' 
wind  destroy  the  crops  there  is  no  remedy,  unless  insurance;  of 
crops  should  come  to  include  these  forms  of  destruction.  And 
for  insect  enemies  the  best  remedy  after  all  is  a  thrifty  plant. 
He  who  farms  well  will  often  escape  injury,  while  his  careless 
neighbor  loses  his  crop.  Intelligent  farming  is  good  farming, 
and  only  good  farming  is  profitable  farming. 

The  Hessian  Fly  —  Yet  there  are  exceptional  years  when  some 
enemy  threatens  the  complete  destruction  of  the  wheat  crop, 
and  prompt  measures  must  be  taken  to  save  it.  In  the  case  of 
attacks  by  the  Hessian  fly  the  plan  has  been  suggested  by  the 
Ohio  experiment  station  of  making  several  sowings  of  wheat, 
the  first  one  large  enough  to  attract  the  full  force  of  the  Hes- 
sian fly,  and  thus  save  the  later  sowings  from  its  ravages.    The 


Drilling  in  the  seed 

portion  of  the  wheat  that  has  been  invaded  by  the  fly  and  on 
which  its  eggs  have  been  deposited,  should  then  be  plowed 
under.  Others  recommend  sowing  strips  of  rye  around  the 
wheat  fields  about  the  same  date.  They  claim  the  fly  will 
deposit  its  eggs  on  the  rye,  and  the  rye  can  then  be  turned 
under.  In  either  case,  whether  plowing  under  wheat  or  rye, 
the  plowing  should  be  so  thoroughly  done  that  no  ends  of  wheat 
or  rye  blades  or  of  weeds  can  be  seen,  as  these  would  form  an 
avenue  of  escape  for  the  buried  insects.  After  plowing,  the 
ground  should  be  harrowed,  and  if  necessary  compacted  with  a 
roller,  so  that  no  larvae  thus  buried  may  survive  as  flies.  Burn- 
ing of  stubble  is  strongly  advised  by  the  experiment  stations, 
where  clover  does  not  follow  wheat,  as  in  this  way  the  fly  will 
be  destroyed  in  the  "  flax  seed  "  stage. 

The  fact  that  a  season  that  is  favorable  for  one  pest  is  un- 
favorable for  another  is  fortunate.    In  times  of  drought  the 


102     .  -  FOR  BETTER    CROPS 

thinclilmg  gets  in  its  injurious  work;  but  let  wet  weather  follow 
when  a  field  is  badly  infested  with  these  pests  and  various  deadly- 
fungus  diseases  appear  and  exterminate  them  for  that  season. 
Under  certain  conditions  the  Hessian  fly  also  has  its  parasitic 
enemies  which  quietly  and  quickly  reduce  their  numbers,  thus 
doing  swiftly  and  silently,  the  task  man  labors  more  clumsily  to 
accomplish. 

Co-operation  Among  Farmers  —  Growing  the  same  crop 
continuously  over  large  areas  tends  to  increase  the  insect  pests. 
There  should  be  co-operation  among  farmers  in  their  efforts  to 
subdue  these  enemies.  The  care  and  forethought  of  one  farmer 
may  be  entirely  undone  by  carelessness  on  adjoining  farms.  As 
intensive  farming  becomes  more  and  more  a  necessity,  more 
attention  will  be  given  to  the  extermination  of  insect  enemies, 
and  communities  will  unite  in  their  warfare  against  them. 

Rust  in  Wheat  — Eust  is  sometimes  more  injurious  to  wheat 
than  its  insect  enemies.  Years  ago  it  was  learned  that  certain 
plants  were  largely  responsible  for  the  spread  of  rust  on  wheat. 
The  year  book  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1904  gives 
an  account  of  the  discovery  that  the  spores  of  barberry  rust  will 
spread  to  adjoining  wheat  fields;  and  so  destructive  is  this  rust 
that  laws  were  passed  in  some  states  requiring  the  destruction 
of  barberry  hedges.  By  this  measure  that  particular  form  of 
rust  was  greatly  reduced.  A  good  many  years  before  this  was 
published  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  this  fact  came  under 
my  observation,  and  barberry  bushes  that  were  highly  prized 
were  sacrificed.  These  bushes  had  been  brought  from  the  old 
home  in  the  east  and  were  not  only  ornamental,  but  a  tie 
between  the  old  home  and  the  new.  Continued  outbreaks  of 
rust  in  wheat  fields  near  these  bushes  led  to  the  discovery 
that  they  were  the  cause  of  the  trouble.  Several  years  later  the 
same  rust  appeared  in  a  neighbor's  fields  and  search  brought  to 
light  the  fact  that  birds  had  carried  seed  to  a  woodlot  some 
distance  from  the  original  shrub,  and  these  had  grown  into 
bushes  that  were  again  spreading  this  destructive  rust.  A 
peculiar  fact  about  this  rust  on  the  barberry  is  that  it  does  not 
injure  the  barberry  plant,  but  does  greatly  injure  the  wheat 
plant,  producing  first  a  red  rust  on  the  blades  and  later  a  black 
rust.  The  great  epidemics  appear  as  red  rust.  If  the  season  is 
moist  the  plants  are  overwhelmed  by  the  rapid  spread  of  this 
disease.  In  climates  where  the  red  rust  on  the  wheat  plants 
cannot  withstand  the  winters  but  must  be  carried  over  on  its 
host,  the  barberry  bush,  it  is  only  necessary  to  get  rid  of  the 
barberry  bushes  in  order  to  eliminate  its  ravages,  but  where  it 
lives  over  winter  in  the  fields,  the  wheat  is  more  or  less  infected 
each  season. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  10 J 


Fungicidal  treatment  for  rusts  has  so  far  proved  of  liitle 
value.  The  best  work  bein^^  done  is  the  effort  to  produce  rust 
resisting  varieties  through  selection  and  hybridization. 

Treatment  for  Smat — Smut  is  more  easily  combated  than 
some  other  pests  that  wheat  is  heir  to.  The  infection  is  caused 
by  the  use  of  smutty  seed,  and  not  by  smut  spores  in  the  soil. 
The  smut  makes  its  attack  when  the  young  wheat  plant  first 
pushes  through  the  soil,  as  the  spores  are  sown  with  the  wheat 
and  germinate  at  the  same  time.  They  live  in  the  tissues  of  the 
plant  and  take  enough  nourishment  from  the  parent  plant  to 
keep  themselves  alive,  but  they  never  entirely  kill  the  wheat 
plant  as  the  rusts  do.  They  live  with  the  wheat  until  maturity 
and  deposit  their  spores  on  the  ripened  grain  or  replace  the 
grain  in  the  head  of  wheat  according  to  the  variety  of  smut 
that  has  attacked  the  plant.  If  smutty  wheat  can  be  treated 
with  some  chemical  that  will  kill  the  spores  and  not  injure  the 
vitality  of  the  wheat,  the  trouble  may  be  easily  met.  One  of  the 
cheapest  and  surest  remedies  for  smut  is  the  application  of  a 
solution  of  formaldehyde,  also  known  as  formalin.  This  should 
be  a  forty  per  cent  solution,  and  a  pound  used  with  forty-five 
gallons  of  water  will  treat  one  hundred  bushels  of  wheat.  The 
wheat  should  be  spread  out  thin  on  a  tight  floor  in  barn  or 
granary;  after  being  well  sprinkled,  it  should  be  covered  with 
sacks  to  prevent  too  rapid  drying.  In  a  few  hours  it  may  be 
uncovered  and  stirred  to  assist  in  drying.  The  solution  should 
come  in  contact  with  every  grain. 

Many  use  the  copper  sulphate  solution  with  success.  One 
pound  of  copper  sulphate  dissolved  in  two  and  a  half  gallons  of 
water  is  sufficient  for  ten  bushels  of  wheat.  If  the  wheat  is 
shoveled  over  and  over,  the  solution  will  reach  each  grain,  and 
by  keeping  it  moist  for  half  an  hour,  the  smut  germs  will  be 
killed.  When  it  is  desirable  to  sow  the  wheat  immediately  after 
treating,  lime  or  dust  may  be  sprinkled  on  it  half  an  hour  after 
applying  the  solution,  and  it  may  be  sown  at  once.  It  must  be 
taken  into  account,  however,  that  soaking  swells  the  grains,  and 
the  drill  should  be  set  accordingly,  and  a  few  quarts  more  of 
seed  should  be  allowed  per  acre. 

The  hot  water  treatment  for  smut  is  also  successful.  The 
wheat  is  placed  in  half  filled  gunny  sacks  and  immersed  in  tubs 
of  water  of  120  degrees  Fahr.  When  the  wheat  has  been  thor- 
oughly warmed,  it  is  taken  out  and  drained  for  a  few  seconds, 
then  immersed  in  another  tub  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  from 
130  to  135  degrees  Fahr.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  dip  the  wheat  at 
once  in  cold  water,  as  it  will  cool  more  quickly  and  the  grains  will 
not  swell  so  much.  The  wheat  should  then  be  spread  where  it 
will  dry  quickly.  The-  general  use  of  these  well  tested  remedies 
would  make  the  existence  of  smutty  wheat  a  rare  occurrence. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  105 

Experiment  Plots  —  Much  has  been  done  by  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  and  the  state  experiment  stations  to  aid  the 
farmer.  By  long-  continued  experiments  and  by  spreading  the 
information  thus  gained,  many  have  reaped  large  benefit,  but  it 
is  to  be  hoped  that  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  each 
community  will  have  experiment  plots  of  its  own,  and  tiiose 
centers  will  become  nuclei  of  both  scientific  and  intensive 
farming. 

Harvesting  Wheat  — In  the  story  of  the  wheat  field  we  have 
come  to  the  time  when  the  sound  of  the  binder  is  heard  in  the 
land.  Most  farmers  are  well  prepared  for  this  part  of  the  work 
and  modern  machines  are  keeping  up  with  the  demands  of  the 
progressive  farmer.  Many  farmers  cut  their  wheat  when  it  is 
too  ripe  and  much  loss  results.  It  may  be  cut  while  the  grain 
is  still  soft,  so  that  it  can  be  crushed  between  the  thumb  and 


Wheat  in  the  shock 

finger,  and  while  there  is  considerable  sap  in  the  straw.  Early 
cutting  adds  also  to  the  value  of  the  straw  and  reduces  the  risk 
from  storms.  The  sheaves  bind  together  better  and  tliere  is  less 
opportunity  for  water  to  gain  admittance.  Another  advantage 
is  the  fact  that  a  larger  amount  of  wheat  can  be  stored  in  a 
given  space  if  cut  moderately  green.  The  best  hands  for  this 
work  should  attend  to  the  shocking,  as  much  damage  may  follow 
carelessness  in  this  part  of  the  work.  If  the  cap  sheaves  are 
put  on  with  the  heads  in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds, 
they  will  be  less  apt  to  be  blown  off.  If  barn  space  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  store  wheat,  it  pays  to  erect  sheds  for  this  purpose. 
Much  wheat  has  been  damaged  by  being  threshed  too  soon ;  and 
leaving  it  out  in  the  field  is  always  a  risk. 

Storing  under  Shelter  —  It  is  not  only  from  the  Standpoint 
of  safety  for  the  wheat  crop  that  it  is  best  to  store  under  shelter, 


106  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

but  it  makes  threshing  less  of  a  problem,  as  it  may  be  done  later 
in  the  season  when  weather  conditions  are  more  endurable,  while 
the  straw  can  be  stacked  in  or  near  the  barn  and  utilized  with 
less  labor  and  trouble.  When  threshing-  is  done  in  the  field,  and 
the  straw  left  on  the  ground  it  should  be  utilized  or  it  becomes 
a  nuisance  by  occupying  valuable  ground  until  decayed;  for  if 
spread  on  the  fields  it  is  quite  valuable.  The  waste  of  such  by- 
products as  this  often  materially  reduces  the  income  of  the 
farmer. 

An  estimate  of  the  weight  of  the  chaff  and  straw  from  a  field 
of  wheat  can  be  made  when  the  number  of  bushels  of  wheat  is 
known,  as  for  one  hundred  bushels  of  wheat  there  will  be  about 
six  tons  of  straw  and  chaff.  Of  course,  this  proportion  varies 
somewhat,  but  this  is  a  general  average. 


It  pays  io  build  igood  stacks 

Wheat  Straw  —  Wheat  Straw  has  several  values  to  the  farmer. 
In  the  early  days  cattle  were  often  wintered  on  straw  alone,  to 
which  they  helped  themselves  from  the  stack.  I^eedless  to  say 
that  by  spring  they  were  in  a  forlorn  condition,  and  many  of 
them  died  from  starvation.  Farmers  do  not  try  such  experiments 
now  as  they  know  animals  must  have  foods  that  will  make  a 
balanced  ration.  Straw,  however,  can  be  made  an  important 
part  of  such  a  ration.  By  sprinkling  it  daily  with  brine  when 
placed  before  the  stock,  it  will  be  readily  eaten;  but  in  connection 
with  the  straw  some  higiily  nitrogenous  food,  such  as  oil  meal 
or  bran  must  be  given,  and  the  animals  will  do  almost  as  well  as 
if  fed  on  good  hay.  As  this  plan  would  be  adopted  as  a  matter 
of  economy,  it  will  be  a  question  to  settle  mathematically  whether 
it  will  pay  better  to  sell  hay  and  buy  oil  meal  and  mill  stuff  in 


FOB  BETTER  CBOPH  107 

order  to  feed  the  straw,  or  to  feed  the  hay  and  put  the  straw  to 
other  uses.  The  relative  prices  of  hay  and  feed  will  determine 
this.  The  manure  product  becomes  more  valuable  when  animals 
are  fed  on  bran,  and  this  may  have  some  weight  in  deciding  on 
the  winter  ration. 

No  farmer  can  afford  to  waste  his  straw,  whether  used  as 
roughage  for  stock  or  not.  It  makes  the  cheapest  and  best 
bedding  in  the  stable,  both  as  an  absorbent  and  to  keep  the 
stables  clean.  By  using  it  liberally  and  removing  it  daily,  both 
animals  and  stables  will  be  clean  and  comfortable. 

In  a  berry  growing  section  there  is  nothing  better  than  straw 
for  mulching  the  berry  fields.  Baled  straw  always  commands 
the  highest  price,  but  that  price  is  not  always  high  enough  to 
justify  the  farmer  in  selling  this  valuable  by-product  and  re- 
moving it  from  the  farm. 

Bran  and  Middlings  —  Two  other  important  by-products  of 
the  wheat  crop  are  bran  and  middlings.  Bran  contains  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  crude  fibre,  somewhat  resembling  that 
contained  in  straw.  It  thus  furnishes  a  bulky  food  and  is,  at  the 
same  time,  rich  in  protein,  making  it  excellent  to  combine  with 
a  corn  ration.  The  high  price  charged  for  bran  has  led  the 
dealers  to  offer  mixtures  instead  of  the  pure  bran,  but  in  our 
experience  the  stock  quickly  detect  the  difference,  and  some- 
times refuse  altogether  to  eat  it.  As  in  most  states  there  are 
laws  requiring  the  dealer  tQ  state  the  contents  of  any  mixtures 
he  offers,  it  ought  to  be  possible  to  get  the  pure  article  by  insist- 
ing on  having  it.  Middlings  are  especially  valuable  in  building 
up  healthy  and  muscular  bodies  in  the  case  of  hogs  and  horses, 
but  perhaps  bran  ranks  ahead  of  it  for  cattle.  Middlings,  so 
called,  are  also  offered  the  farmer,  being  reground  bran  with 
something  added  to  give  weight.  But  in  this  case,  too,  the 
farmer  should  look  for  a  pure  food  wiien  buying. 

A  Fascinating  Story  — The  Story  of  any  crop  from  the  seed 
back  to  the  seed  is  fascinating.  Every  step  is  important  from 
the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  its  fertilization  and  culture,  and 
the  implements  used,  to  the  time  when  storing,  marketing,  and 
seeding  again,  have  completed  the  circle. 

Success  with  haphazard  methods  will  soon  be  a  thing  of  the 
past.  The  American  farmer  has  entered  upon  a  scientific  era 
in  which  he  will  use,  in  so  far  as  they  meet  his  needs,  all  the  dis- 
coveries of  the  laboratory,  all  the  helps  of  the  experiment 
stations  and  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  all  the  improved 
methods  and  machines  demanded  by  his  farm  operations.  When 
this  is  done,  the  oft  expressed  fear  that  increasing  populations 
will  outstrip  the  supply  of  food  will  be  seen  to  be  groundless. 

Ample  Food  Supply  Assured  — This  hopeful  view  is  found- 
ed on  investigations  made  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and 


108 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


published  in  its  year  book  for  1909.  Statistics  of  the  yield  per 
acre  of  wheat  foi  periods  of  ten  years  each  since  1866  showed  a 
steady,  though  small  increase  of  yield  per  acre.  Using  this  as  a 
basis  of  calculation,  and  ignoring  the  probable  factors  that  will 
accelerate  this  rate,  it  showed  that  the  bread  supply  will  not 
only  keep  pace  with  the  increase  of  population,  but  that  in  the 


FoUovin^  the  binder  -w^ith  the  disk  harro'»v.  The  stubble  acts  as  a 
reflector  and  so  intensifies  the  rays  of  the  sun  that  ^reat  quantities  of 
moisture  are  carried  aw^ay  from  the  field.  Much  of  the  moisture  can 
be  conserved  by  foUo^ving  the  binder  >v^ith  the  disk  harro^v. 


year  1950  there  will  be  a  surplus  of  200,000,000  bushels  of  wheat 
in  the  United  States.  That  a  large  increase  in  the  yield  of 
wheat  from  one  acre  of  land  is  possible,  no  one  doubts;  and  the 
future  surely  promises  also  an  increase  over  large  areas  in  the 
yield  from  each  acre  of  wheat,  and  an  end  to  the  low  averages 
now  so  generally  reported  from  all  the  wheat  growing  sections 
of  our  country. 


Farm  Power 


By  L.  W.  Chase 

Professor  of  Agricultural  Engineering,  University  of  Nebraska 


In  the   Hilly  and  Mountainous    States, 

water  which  can  be  used  for  power  is 
going  to  waste.  In  the  prairie  states, 
wind  which  might  be  used  as  a  power  is 
abundant,  in  fact,  to  those  who  visit  the 
regions  only  occasionally  it  is  entirely  too 
plentiful.  The  water  for  power  is  being 
w^asted  because  it  is  not  in  the  proper 
locality.  It  is  confined  to  streams  which 
are  so  far  from  the  homes  where  the 
power  should  be  utilized  that  only  a  few 
are  fortunate  enough  to  use  it.  Wind 
for  power  is  scattered  all  over  the  prairies,  but  it  is  irregular  in 
its  velocities  and  it  takes  such  large  quantities  to  develop  only 
a  small  amount  of  power  that  the  cost  of  the  plant  is  great. 
Water  and  wind  are  the  cheapest  powers  possible,  but  in 
either  case,  the  cost  of  a  plant  great  enough  to  furnish  power  is 
sufficiently  large  to  make  them  prohibitive  to  the  farmer. 
Steam  power  can  be  used  for  everything  on  a  farm,  but  the  time 
required  to  start  the  outfit  and  the  care  It  needs  when  once 
started  prohibits  its  use  on  the  farm  for  anything  but  very  large 
units,  so  the  most  feasible  automatic  power  left  for  the  farmers 
is  the  internal  combustion  engine,  the  gasoline  engine  being  the 
most  common  type. 

If  the  first  salesmen  of  gasoline  engines  had  known  as  much 
about  their  stock  in  trade  when  they  introduced  the  new  motor 
power,  and  if  the  public  to  whom  they  were  endeavoring  to  sell 
their  goods  had  known  as  much  about  them  at  that  time  as  they 
do  now,  gasoline  engine  manufacturing  would  not  have  received 
such  a  cool  reception  as  the  general  public  gave  it  after  only  a 
few  engines  had  been  tried.  It  is  a  failing  of  human  nature 
that  wherever  there  is  a  wheel  to  turn,  everybody  must  try  to 
turn  it.  Likewise  everybody  is  desirous  of  having  a  motive 
power  to  do  his  work  which  runs  of  its  own  accord  and  needs  no 
feeding,  no  currying,  no  harnessing,  no  cleaning,  no  firing,  and 
in  short,  practically  no  care.  When  the  gasoline  engine  first 
came  into  the  market  the  dealers  came  out  with  just  such  extra- 
vagant claims;  they  had  just  what  everybody  wanted,  an  engine 

109 


no 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


always  sure  to  run;  you  had  simply  to  throw  In  the  switch,  open 
the  throttle,  give  the  wheels  a  half  turn,  and  it  was  off.  But  if 
it  was  off,  it  was  usually  for  a  few  times  only,  and  then  the 
trouble  began.  And  why  the  trouble?  For  no  other  reason  than 
that  the  operator  didn't  know  the  principles  of  his  machine. 
He  hadn't  been  told  that  the  charge  of  gasoline  had  to  be  diffused 
Into  a  very  weak  gas,  that  this  gas  had  to  be  compressed  to 
about  60  pounds  per  square  inch  before  it  would  ignite,  that  if 
the  gas  contained  too  much  gasoline  it  would  not  explode,  and  a 
number  of  other  little  things  which  are  necessary  to  make  an 
automatic  motor. 


/'  ■ 

' 

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^:  ■-<:-.  .-...     '^^^ 

'--^^Sj 

--^Hi 

HHp'^S^^gjgll^^-^^'^'^V'  Y- 

)^m 

H^^^^^Et^^^OT'     -    ^                     --- 

f    iSE 

-'^H 

H[rrl^^?^^^^^Hfll^^^^S^^^^taHBHra»[n 

^^Sm 

H^HKi^^B 

.,  .  '*.\^.^"1JSSHS 

\.±:^^f^^'^                                                           '-^^^^HH 

Spraying  fruit  trees 


But  L,on^  Before  This  Time  the  dealer  has  learned  that  he 
must  know  his  machine  by  heart,  must  know  the  internal  as 
well  as  external  workings.  Not  only  must  he  know  his  own 
machine,  but  he  must  also  know  his  competitor's.  But  what  of 
all  this  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  dealer?  Does  It  help  the 
farmer?  It  certainly  does,  for  because  of  this  information  which 
the  dealer  has  given  out,  the  farmer  takes  a  much  broader 
view  of  an  engine.  He  knows  it  is  a  success  if  properly  handled 
and  in  many  instances  he  knows  the  principles  of  the  machine. 
And  if  he  does  not  know  the  principles,  he  admits  his  ignorance 


FOR  BETTKlt  Cliors  111 

and  sets  to  learning-  them.  The  gasoline  engine  has  come  to  he 
looked  upon  as  a  necessity,  and  all  men  are  now  desirous  of 
learning,  along  with  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  machine, 
the  more  intricate  details. 

Toda}'  most  farmers  have  learned  that  a  gasoline  engine  is  an 
automatic  machine  when  properly  handled,  but  that  if  it  is  not 
handled  very  carefully,  it  will  behave  worse  than  the  proverbial 
mule.  If  the  farmer  himself  does  not  know  that  a  four  cycle 
engine  requires  a  suction  stroke,  a  compression  stroke,  an 
expansion  stroke,  and  an  exhaust  or  clearance  stroke,  before  the 
cycle  of  gases  is  complete,  his  son  is  quite  apt  to,  so  what  is  the 
difference — it  is  all  in  the  family.  This  same  son  knows  that  the 
charge  which  is  drawn  into  the  engine  must  be  of  the  proper 
mixture,  he  knows  that  the  charge  must  be  compressed  to  the 
proper  number  of  pounds  per  square  inch  or  it  will  not  explode. 
He  knows  that  ignition  must  take  place  a  certain  distance 
before  the  piston  reaches  dead  center  in  order  to  get  the  proper 
power  from  the  charge,  and  he  knows  that  the  burnt  charge 
must  be  removed  from  the  cylinder  before  a  new  charge  is  taken 
in.  These  four  fundamentals  of  a  gasoline  engine  he  knows, 
and  he  also  knows  that  if  any  one  of  these  is  off,  the  engine  will 
not  run. 

;Not  Dangerous  —  Sonie  say  that  gasoline  engines  are  danger- 
ous because  they  will  explode.  This  is  an  erroneous  idea. 
Gasoline  engines  do  explode,  or  at  least  should  explode  about 
150-300  times  per  minute,  and  there  has  been  far  more  trouble 
caused  because  they  do  not  explode  than  because  they  do  explode. 
Gasoline  itself  will  not  explode.  If  jou  do  not  believe  it,  fill 
a  bottle  full  of  the  liquid  and  hold  a  match  to  it.  You  do  not 
need  to  scringe  or  blink;  it  will  do  nothing  but  slowly  burn, 
throwing  off  a  yellowish  blue  flame.  It  is  not  the  gasoline 
which  explodes  and  does  harm,  but  it  is  the  gasoline  vapors 
which  have  escaped  into  the  open  air  that  explode.  Take  a  pint 
fruit  jar  and  drop  about  ten  drops  of  gasoline  into  it.  Stir  the 
air  up  within  the  jar,  then  turn  the  jar  over  and  hold  a  match 
to  the  mouth.  A  small  explosion  occurs  —  and  this  is  what 
happens  every  time  a  charge  of  gas  explodes  in  the  engine,  and 
also  every  time  gasoline  vapors  are  ignited  in  a  room.  Roughly 
it  takes  1,700  to  2,000  times  its  own  volume  of  air  mixed  with 
gasoline  to  make  it  explode.  Try  exploding  the  charge  of  gaso- 
line vapor  in  the  fruit  jar  once  more,  but  this  time  put  in 
about  twenty-five  drops  of  gasoline  instead  of  ten.  Some  men 
act  upon  the  principle  that  if  a  little  is  a  good  thing,  more  is 
better.  If  we  got  a  small  explosion  with  ten  drops  of  gasoline, 
we  ought  to  get  a  large  explosion  with  twenty-five  drops.  Ignite 
the  charge  and  see.  It  doesn't  explode  — simply  burns  with  a 
slow  flame  as  long  as  the  jar  is  turned  over.    Set  the  jar  up 


112 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  113 

straight  and  the  flame  dies  out.  This  is  an  instance  where  a 
Httle  is  good,  and  where  more  is  not  so  good,  and  too  much  is 
worse  than  none.  The  second  charge  did  not  explode  because 
there  was  too  much  gasoline  in  the  jar  to  unite  with  the  air 
in  a  proportion  which  would  make  an  explosion.  It  only  made 
an  inflammable  gas,  which  is  entirely  too  slow  for  a  gasohne 
engine. 

Apply  the  above  principle  to  a  gasoline  engine  and  you  will 
have  the  cause  of  tifty  per  cent  of  the  troubles  of  the  amateur, 
lie  unconsciously  floods  his  engine,  and  after  working  over  it  for 
an  hour  or  so  trying  to  start  it,  goes  away  in  disgust.  Perhaps 
in  an  hour  or  so,  some  one  comes  along  who  gives  it  a  try  and  it 
starts  right  off.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  first  man  flooded 
the  engine  with  gasoline,  and  as  it  would  not  start,  he  kept  on 
flooding  it.  But  when  he  left  the  engine  the  vapors  within  the 
cylinder  deteriorated  or  passed  off  in  some  way,  so  when  the  next 
man  came  along  the  mixture  of  gasoline  and  air  was  of  such 
consistency  that  the  engine  started  at  once. 

It  is  always  better  to  have  the  needle  valve  open  too  small  a 
distance  than  too  large  a  distance,  then  if  the  engine  does  not 
start  the  first  time  the  wheel  is  thrown  over,  close  the  needle 
valve,  hold  open  the  inlet  valve,  and  turn  the  W'heels  around  a 
time  or  two.  This  will  clear  the  cylinder  of  the  previous  un- 
burnt  charge  so  that  the  try  can  be  made  again  without  danger 
of  flooding. 

Ignition— The  ignitor  of  a  gasoline  engine  is  a  simple  affair 
when  one  understands  its  principle.  Batteries  will  generate 
current  only  when  there  is  a  complete  circuit.  Set  a  cell  out  by 
itself  and  nothing  goes  on  within  it  until  some  metallic  substance 
is  placed  across  the  binding  posts.  If  you  hold  one  end  of  a  wire 
on  the  zinc  binding  post  and  then  snap  the  other  end  across  the 
carbon,  a  few  sparks  and  smoke  will  be  thrown  off.  This  shows 
that  a  circuit  has  been  made  and  that  a  current  was  set  up  in  the 
system.  A  series  of  cells  connected  together,  zinc  to  carbon, 
zinc  to  carbon,  and  so  on  until  the  last  cell  is  connected  to  the 
first,  form  one  big  cell,  or  as  it  is  commonly  called,  a  battery. 
Instead  of  connecting  the  last  cell  to  the  first,  connect  it  to 
some  bright  spot  in  the  engine,  and  from  another  bright  spot 
on  the  engine  connect  a  wire  to  the  first  cell.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  a  circuit  is  again  made,  the  engine  acting  as  a  part  of  the 
wire.  Now  cut  one  of  the  wires  leading  from  the  battery  to  the 
engine  and  connect  the  ends  of  the  severed  wire  to  the  binding 
posts  of  the  spark  coil  and  again  snap  the  wire  across  the  cell. 
A  much  more  brilliant  spark  is  made  than  before.  The  coil 
acts  as  a  booster,  and  is  essential  in  all  igniting  systems.  Take 
one  of  the  wires  connected  to  the  engine  and  connect  it  to  the 
binding  post  of  the  ignitor,  then  snap  the  wire  in  the  battery 


114 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


and  it  is  found  that  no  spark  is  made.  This  is  because  the 
binding-  post  in  the  ignitor  is  insulated  from  the  engine.  Swing 
the  trip  on  the  ignitor  around  until  you  feel  it  strike  something 
on  the  inside  of  the  engine,  then  snap  the  wire  across  the  bat- 
tery, and  again  the  spark  is  made.  This  is  because  the  movable 
part  of  the  ignitor  has  come  in  contact  within  the  engine  with 
the  insulated  binding  post,  and  a  circuit  is  made  through  the 
inside  of  the  engine.  Leave  both  wires  connected  to  the  bat- 
tery and  snap  the  trigger  on  the  ignitor,  and  you  make  a  spark 
within  the  engine  the  same  as  you  did  on  the  battery  when  you 
held  the  trigger  around  so  that  contact  was  made  through  the 
inside  of  the  engine.  If  you  do  not  believe  this,  take  the  ignitor 
out  and  lay  it  on  some  bright  part  of  the  engine  and  try  it. 
While  you  have  the  ignitor  out  put  some  water  between  the 


Filling  the  silo 


points  and  then  snap  it  and  see  if  you  get  a  spark.  You  do  not, 
because  the  water  bridges  the  gap  between  the  points,  and  being 
a  conductor  of  electricity,  the  circuit  is  not  broken.  Put  some 
oil  between  the  points  and  try  it.  No  spark  is  made  in  this 
case  because  the  oil  is  a  non-conductor  of  electricity,  and  the 
circuit  was  not  made,  hence  could  not  be  broken. 

These  illustrations  show  that  if  a  non-conductor  gets  between 
the  points  of  the  ignitor  a  spark  is  not  made,  and  if  a  conductor 
gets  across  the  points  a  spark  is  also  not  made,  hence  it  is  abso- 
lutely essential  that  the  ignitor  and  all  binding  posts  be  kept 
clean,  and  the  latter  must  be  kept  tight. 

Since  gasoline  gas  does  not  burn  instantly,  ignition  should 
take  place  some  time  before  the  piston  reaches  dead  center. 
This  point  is  generally  determined  by  the  position  of  the  crank 
and  the  speed  of  the  engine.     A  slow  speed  engine  should  ignite 


FOR  BETTKU  ('HOI'S  115 

when  the  crank  is  about  10  degrees  below  center,  while  some 
extremel}'  high  speed  engines  should  ignite  about  70  degrees 
below  or  before  dead  center.  This  latter  applies  more  especially 
to  automobile  engines. 

The  farmer  who  knows  the  principle  of  the  action  of  the 
gases  in  his  engine  and  understands  his  ignitor,  will  have  no 
trouliles  other  than  those  which  come  up  l:)ecause  of  wear  and 
poor  adjustment  or  lack  of  care,  and  these  troubles  he  must 
learn  to  adjust  as  the}'  come  about. 

A  Comparison — Men  who  are  driven  will  sulk,  will  complain, 
and  linally|strike,  but  few  will  ever  overwork.  A  horse  will  work 
on,  no  matter  how  much  he  is  required  to  do  and  no  matter  how 
badly  he  is  crippled  up.  A  steam  engine  is  like  a  horse  —  i-t  can 
be  overworked  to  its  detriment  —  and  if  it  gets  out  of  order  it 
will  run  on  just  the  same  until  it  is  practically  ruined.  A  gas- 
oline engine  is  like  a  man  — if  it  is  overtaxed  it  quits,  and  if  it 


l_^ 

r 

.  ^,^ 

IPS 

p^^^ 

WP 

^^u 

Sr^ 

Husking  and  shredding  fodder 

is  out  of  order  it  will  not  run.  It  is  like  a  man  in  another 
respect.  It  is  always  ready  to  start,  does  not  have  to  be  driven 
in  from  the  pasture;  neither  does  an  hour's  time  need  to  be 
wasted  to  get  its  motive  power  in  the  proper  condition  to  use. 
Furthermore,  it  is  not  dangerous  when  handled  either  by  ex- 
perts or  novices.  It  will  not  run  away,  it  will  not  kick,  nor  will 
It  explode  its  boiler. 

Men  have  been  known  to  say  that  horse  labor  is  cheap,  and 
some  men  believe  it  is.  But  can  they  prove  it?  Transfer  com- 
panies in  the  prairie  states  make  the  claim  that  it  costs  $125  per 
year  to  feed  a  horse.  Of  course  these  horses  are  all  work  horses, 
and  most  of  the  time  they  work.  The  Minnesota  experiment 
station  has  proven  that  it  costs  approximately  $80  to  maintain 
a  farm  horse  for  a  year,  and  the  horse  only  returns  about  three 
hours'  work  per  day  for  this,  which  makes  the  cost  of  his  services 
to  the  farmer  amount  to  about  eight  cents  per  hour.  In  addition 
to  this  must  be  counted  the  depreciation,  interest,  and  taxes. 


116  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

With  gasoline  at  20  cents  per  gallon,  and  with  a  very  extrava- 
gant engine,  it  should  not  cost  more  than  two  and  a  half  cents 
per  hour  for  each  horse  power  used.  The  interest,  taxes,  and 
depreciation  would  be  about  the  same  as  for  a  horse  when  in 
use,  but  when  not  in  use  the  engine  does  not  depreciate  and  the 
horse  does.  Again,  when  not  in  use,  the  engine  does  not  eat 
anything,  while  the  horse  eats  nearly  as  much  as  when  in  use. 

It  is  quite  difficult  to  compare  the  cost  of  using  the  horse 
with  the  use  of  gasoline  engines,  as  neither  one  is  ever  used  all 
the  time,  but  it  may  be  of  interest  to  make  an  attempt  at  the 
exact  figures. 

What  the  Tests  Show — The  department  of  agricultural 
engineering  at  the  University  of  Nebraska  has  made  tests  of 
pumping  with  a  3-horse  power  gasoline  engine  and  found  that  it 
takes  one  gallon  of  gasoline  to  pump  2, 454:. 5  gallons  of  water  from 
a  well  43  feet  to  water,  and  that  one  gallon  of  gasoline  will  pump 


l,720gallons  of  water  from  a  well  159  feet  to  water.  A  gallon  of 
gasoline  should  pump  sufficient  water  from  a  well  43  feet  deep  to 
supply  300  head  of  cattle  24  hours,  and  it  should  pump  sufficient 
water  from  a  well  160  feet  deep  to  supply  215  head  of  cattle  24 
hours.  The  same  engine  referred  to  above  shelled  28  bushels  of 
corn  in  26  minutes  and  used  .105  part  of  a  gallon  of  gasoline. 
This  shows  that  one  gallon  of  gasoline  will  shell  264  bushels  of 
corn. 

The  men,  in  making  this  test,  did  not  stop  with  slielling  the 
corn,  but  kept  on  and  ran  the  corn  through  a  feed  grinder  at 
tl  e  rate  of  29^  bushels  an  hour,  and  found  that  a  gallon  of  gaso- 
line would  grind  48.6  bushels  of  corn  sufficiently  fine  for  good 
feed. 

These  same  men  found  that  it  took  .0893  gallons  of  gasoline 
to  run  the  engine  empty  for  one  hour,  or  .001489  of  a  gallon  to 
run  the  engine  one  minute.  It  takes  about  one  minute  to  sep- 
arate one  cow's  milk,  and  requires  about  -f^g-horse  power  to  run 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


117 


the  separator.  To  do  one  horse  power's  work  for  ten  hours,  small 
gasoline  engines  use  about  a  gallon  of  gasoline  plus  the  amount 
used  to  operate  the  engine.  Computing  from  this  it  is  found 
that  it  takes  about  .00011  part  of  a  gallon  of  gasoline  to  do  the 
work  of  separating  one  cow's  milk.  Add  tliis  to  the  amount  of 
gasoline  used  (.001489)  to  run  the  engine  one  minute,  and  the 
sum  is  the  amount  used  (.001589  galls.)  separating  the  milk 
of  one  cow  with  a  3-horse  engine  and  a  740  pound  separator. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  it  should  take  only  about  .32  of  a 
gallon  of  gasoline  to  separate  the  milk  from  100  cows  for  24 
hours,  which  at  20  cents  per  gallon  would  cost  only  6.4  cents. 


Grinding  feed 


It  takes  about  ^Vhorse  power  to  run  a  common  hand  grind- 
stone, w^hich  means  that  it  takes  .958  part  of  a  cent  to  grind  a 
sickle.  If  it  takes  30  minutes  to  grind  a  sickle,  and  farm  help 
now  costs  approximately  25  cents  per  hour,  it  costs  12.5  cents 
for  a  man  to  turn  the  grindstone  while  the  sickle  is  being 
ground. 

Other  Work  for  the  Engine  —  Saving  a  woman's  labor  on  a 
farm  is  an  item  which  should  not  be  overlooked  when  consider- 
ing a  farm  power  plant,  and  this  is  especially  true  of  the  weekly 
washing.  When  the  washing  machine  is  run  by  hand  it  takes 
about  five  minutes  of  turning  for  each  washer  full  of  clothes, 


118  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

and  there  are -generally  about  six  washers  full.  This  means 
that  the  machine  is  run  about  30  minutes  for  a  washing-,  and 
takes  about  .0478  part  of  a  gallon  of  gasoline.  This  is  not  the 
amount  which  is  generally  used,  for  the  washing  machines  are 
run  about  twice  as  long  when  they  are  motor  driven  as  when 
hand  driven,  and  get  the  clothes  correspondingly  cleaner. 

In  short,  the  following  table  shows  about  the  amount  of 
gasoline  required  when  using  a  3-horse  power  gasoline  engine 
for  the  work  about  the  farm.  Some  of  the  figures  are  from 
actual  tests  and  some  are  computations  : 

One  gallon  of  gasoline  will  pump 

2,454  gallons  of  water  from  well  43  feet  deep. 

1,720  gallons  of  water  from  well  159  feet  deep 

Will  shell  !^-.  ■ 

264  bushels  of  corn. 

Will  grind 

48.6  bushels  of  corn. 

Will  separate  the  milk  from 

300  cows. 

Will  do  about 

20  weekly  washings  without  wringing. 

Will  grind  about 

20  sickles  and 

If  harvester  is  pulled  by  horses,  will  cut  about 

4  acres  of  grain. 

The  limit  of  usefulness  of  a  gasoline  engine  on  a  farm  depends 
upon  the  ingenuity  of  the  farmer.  Besides  the  subjects  men- 
tioned, it  should  be  made  to  cut  the  ice,  put  the  ice  in  the  ice 
house,  the  hay  in  the  barn,  the  corn  in  the  crib,  cut  the  alfalfa, 
the  ensilage,  do  the  threshing,  sharpen  the  plows  and  the  disks, 
sweep  the  floors  of  the  house,  saw  the  wood,  light  the  buildings, 
and  do  many  other  kinds  of  work. 

Size  of  Engine — What  size  of  engine  to  purchase  depends 
entirely  upon  the  farm  and  farmer.  On  the  whole,  it  seems 
that  most  farmers  are  purchasing  too  small  an  engine,  and  over- 
looking the  medium  sizes.  A  good  4  or  5-horse  power  engine  will 
do  anything  on  the  farm,  except  thresh  or  fill  the  silo,  and  do 
it  as  economically  as  a  large  engine  which  would  require  a 
large  force  to  keep  it  supplied  with  work.  This  same  engine 
will  do  all  the  small  work  about  the  farm,  and  requires  only  a 
trifle  more  gasoline  for  the  work  than  a  1  or  2-horse  power 
engine. 

With  modern  machines  and  a  good  gasoline  engine  a  farmer 
should  use  his  mental  ability  in  such  a  way  that  he  and  his 
farm  hand  can  do  all  his  work,  and  then  thereby  drop  the  old 
time  shelling  bee  and  threshing  day.    By  stacking   the  grain 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


119 


and  using  a  small  separator,  a  farmer  can  choose  his  own  time 
to  thresh,  and  by  that  means  keep  a  ^^ood  hand  who  would 
otherwise  be  lost.  This  method  of  doin<^  the  work  will  also 
take  a  burden  from  his  wife's  shoulders,  ])ecause  she  will  not 
need  to  cook  for  such  a  larj^^e  number  of  extra  men  as  is  usual 
at  threshing-  time.  Whenever  a  farmer  gets  a  gasoline  engine 
he  should  arrrange  to  do  without  an  equivalent  value  of  horse 
flesh  or  man  labor. 


Operating  the  cream  separator 


The  Gasoline  Tractor — The  matter  of  substituting  a  trac- 
tion engine  for  horses  now  depends  upon  three  things  to  make 
it  a  success. 

First :    The  size,  arrangement,  and  topography  of  the  farm. 
Second :    The  conditions  of  roads  and  bridges  leading  to  town. 
Third :    A  man's  ability  to  handle  his  work  so  that  he  can 
substitute  oil  and  steel  for  man  and  horse. 

The  farmer  who  has  a  farm  which  is  fairly  level  and  laid 
out  in  long  fields  can  plow  the  fields  and  seed  them  with  a  trac- 
tion  engine  cheaper  than  with  horses. 

With  large  wagons,  good  roads  and  bridges,  a  man  can  deliver 
his  produce  in  town  with  a  traction  engine  as  cheap  and  prob- 
ably cheaper  than  with  horses. 


120 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


A  modern  farmer  must  not  only  be  able  to  select  good  seed, 
sow  it  scientifically,  and  feed  the  harvested  crop  scientifically, 
but  he  must  be  able  to  sow,  till,  hartest,  and  handle  the 
crops  economically.  To  do  this  he  must  be  an  engineer 
as  well  as  an  agriculturist  in  every  sense  of  the  word.  One 
of  the  greatest  losses  on  the  modern  farm  today  is  through 
poor  handling  of  labor,  machines,  horses,  and  improper  arrange- 


Pumping  -water 

ment  of  buildings.  A  great  part  of  these  losses  is  the  feeding 
of  several  horses  for  ten  months  in  the  year  to  do  a  few  weeks 
work,  and  the  farmer  must  learn  to  arrange  his  work  to  utilize 
the  services  of  his  horses  all  the  year  around,  or  he  must 
arrange  his  work  for  the  efficient  use  of  a  gasoline  engine.  The 
latter  appeals  to  the  writer  as  a  more  feasible  plan  and  one 
which  the  best  farm  management  is  slowly  but  surely  adopting. 


^    % 


Profitable  Hay  Making 

THE  SEEDING— THE  GROWING  CROP— BEST  METHODS 
OF  CURING  HAY 


By  Professor  Thomas  Shaw 

Formerly  of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn. 


The  Corn  Crop— The  United  States 
stands  first  in  the  popular  estimate. 
This  estimate  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
the  corn  crop  far  exceeds,  in  direct  cash 
value,  any  other  single  crop  grown  in  the 
United  States.  In  1910  the  farm  value 
of  the  corn  crop  was  $1,523,968,000.  The 
hay  crop  is  second,  with  a  farm  value  of 
$747,769,000.  Wheat  ranks  third,  with  a 
farm  value  of  $621,443,000. 

That  corn  is  king  among  farm  crops, 
to  use  a  popular  phrase,  would  be  apparent 
from  the  above  figures.  But  it  is  only  apparent.  The  grass  crop 
is  the  most  important  crop  that  the  United  States  produces,  and 
may  continue  to  be  so  through  all  time.  That  such  is  the  fact 
may  readily  be  shown.    Let  it  be  observed: 

1.  That  the  estimated  value  of  the  grass  crop  included  only 
hay,  while  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  pasture  crop  is  more 
valuable  by  a  large  margin  than  the  hay  crop,  because  of  the 
immense  area  in  pasture.  Add  these  values,  and  the  cash  value 
of  the  grass  crop  will  exceed  that  of  the  corn. 

2.  The  corn  crop  has  cost  much  more  to  produce  than  the 
hay  crop,  hence  the  net  profit  from  growing  the  hay  would 
approximate  much  more  nearly  the  net  profit  from  growing  corn 
than  the  maximum  value  of  the  former  does  that  of  the  latter. 

3.  The  full  value  of  the  hay  to  the  farmer  is  not  shown  by 
its  commercial  value  in  the  matured  form.  While  the  grasses 
have  been  growing  into  arable  farms  where  rotation  is  practiced, 
they  have  been  storing  the  ground  with  their  roots,  which,  along 
with  the  stubbles,  when  the  meadows  are  broken  up,  furnisli 
liumus  for  the  growing  of  other  crops.  Those  leguminous  in 
character  always  in  addition  leave  the  ground  richer  than  they 
found  it  in  nitrogen,  and  nitrogen  is  the  costly  element  of 
fertility. 

The  indirect  value  of  the  hay  crop  to  the  farmer  can  not  be 
stated  in  figures.     But  it  would  not  be  extravagant'  to  say,  that 


122  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

all  things  considered,  it  would  not  be  much  less  than  the  market 
value  of  the  hay. 

In  the  absence  of  grass,  the  humus  supply  in  the  land  can  not 
be  maintained  so  well  in  any  other  way,  which  means  that  with- 
out it,  land  can  not  be  kept  for  a  considerable  term  of  years  in  a 
proper  mechanical  condition.  Without  the  grass  crop,  weeds 
can  not  be  so  readily  kept  under  control,  nor  can  the  diseases 
that  affect  grain  crops  be  so  readily  kept  at  bay.  In  its  absence, 
some  soils  blow  and  others  are  carried  away  by  the  action  of 
water,  which  may  fall  in  the  form  of  rain  or  snow.  In  its 
absence,  live  stock  can  not  be  maintained  on  the  farm  without 
undue  expense,  and  consequently,  in  its  absence  mixed  farming 
will  be  impossible.  Beyond  all  question,  grass  is  king  among 
the  crops  of  the  farm  in  the  United  States  and  so  it  will  con- 
tinue to  be. 

Meadow  in  the  Rotation — In  the  absence  of  the  grass  crop, 
true  rotation  in  the  sense  of  resting  and  renovating  land,  is  not 
possible  without  undue  expense.  To  change  from  one  cereal 
crop  to  another  in  the  rotation  does  not  rest  or  renovate  land 
unless  the  cereal  grown  is  a  legume.  Growing  these  crops  in 
alternation  has  some  advantages  over  growing  only  one  in 
unchanging  succession,  especially  when  one  of  these,  as  corn  for 
instance,  is  made  a  cleaning  crop,  but  all  of  these,  except  the 
pea  crop,  draw  upon  practically  the  same  elements  of  fertility 
in  the  land. 

The  frequency  with  which  the  hay  crop  should  be  introduced 
into  the  rotation  depends  upon  conditions  such  as  relate  to  soil, 
climate,  the  character  of  the  hay  crop  grown,  and  the  object  for 
which  it  is  grown. 

Where  the  soil  conditions  are  such  that  in  conjunction  with 
the  climatic  conditions,  a  stand  of  grass  can  be  reckoned  on  with 
much  certainty,  the  introduction  of  the  grass  crop  should  be 
quite  frequent  in  the  rotation.  The  aim  should  be,  as  a  rule,  to 
grow  not  more  than  three  crops  of  grain  between  the  grass  crops. 
In  this  way  the  land  may  be  adequately  supplied  with  humus. 
With  great  propriety  the  grass  crop  may  precede  such  crops  as 
corn  and  potatoes,  and  if  the  sod  has  been  manured  with  farm- 
yard manure  before  plowing  it,  the  conditions  are  just  to  that 
extent  improved.  Under  the  conditions  named,  the  plan  is  good 
which  cuts  two  crops  of  mixed  hay,  followed  by  one  season  of 
pasturing.  This  in  time  is  followed  by  a  cultivated  crop,  and 
after  the  cultivated  crop,  two  crops  of  cereals. 

Wherever  the  rainfall  is  large  and  the  temperature  warm,  it 
would  be  better  to  aim  to  grow  only. two  crops  of  cereals  between 
the  grass  crops,  because  of  the  quick  decay  of  humus.  But  where 
the  rainfall  is  light,  and  the  atmosphere  of  a  character  which 
retards  the  decay  of  iiumus,  as  in  the  northwestern  states,  in 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


12a 


man}'  instances  four  crops  of  grain  may  come  i)etween  the  grass 
crops  without  too  quickly  depleting  the  land  of  the  humus 
supply. 

If  the  hay  crop  grown  should  be'a  legume,  as  for  instance  red 
clover,  then  the  most  profitable  rotation  is  clover  cut  twice  in 
one  season,  a  cultivated  crop  as  corn  or  potatoes  next  season, 
and  a  cereal  crop  seeded  to  clover  the  third  season.  Such  a- 
rotation  is  unrivaled  for  the  maintenance  of  maximum  produc- 
tion in  crops. 

But  there  may  be  instances  when  it  is  not  desirable  to  rotate 
hay  crops.  Certain  soils  have  special  adaptation  to  growing 
hay,  and  they  may  be  so  situated  that  hay  crops  grown  upon 
them  are  more  remunerative  than  other  crops;  such  are  re- 
claimed tide  lands  by  the  sea,  and  in  some  instances  river  bot- 
tom lands  subject  or  not  subject  to  overflow. 

In  some  cases  hay  is  so  dear  relatively  that  it  is  more  profit- 


Marvesting  the  hay  crop 

able  to  keep  the  land  growing  hay  for  successive  years  when 
once  a  good  stand  has  been  obtained.  The  production  in  the 
crop  is  then  maintained  by  applying  artificial  fertilizers.  In 
other  instances  good  crops  may  be  grown  for  a  long  term  of 
years  without  fertilizers,  as  when  certain  marsh  lands  have  been 
reclaimed,  and  yet  in  other  instances  a  certain  hay  crop  may 
have  so  high  an  adaptation  to  certain  soils,  that  it  may  produce 
many  successive  crops  of  hay  without  injury  to  the  land,  such 
as  the  alfalfa  crop. 


Mixed  Grasses  for  Hay  —Some  grasses  grow  best  alone. 
This  may  arise  from  inability  to  cope  with  other  grasses,  as  in 
the  case  of  alfalfa;  hence,  except  under  peculiarly  favorable  con- 
ditions, the  aim  is  to  grow  alfalfa  alone.  Or,  it  may  arise  from 
the  greatly  aggressive  character  of  these  grasses,  which  enables 
them  soon  to  crowd  out  other  grasses.  Such  are  Johnson  grass, 
grown  in  the  south,  Bermuda  grass  also  grown  there.  Kentucky 
blue  grass,  which  grows  over  almost  the  entire  United  States- 


124  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

save  in  the  semi-arid  west,  quack  grass  which  is  widely  scattered 
over  farms  in  the  northern,  central  and  eastern  states,  and 
which  persists  in  growing  where  it  is  not  desired.  Johnson 
grass  and  quack  grass  yield  well,  but  both  are  so  persistent  in 
their  growth  that  they  should  never  be  sown.  Bermuda  and 
Kentucky  blue  grass  have  far  higher  relative  adaption  for  pas- 
ture than  for  hay,  hence  they  should  only  be  sown  or  planted 
for  pasture. 

The  three  grasses,  timothy,  Russian  brome,  and  western  rye 
grass  or  slender  wheat  grass,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  may  be 
grown  with  other  grasses,  but  for  certain  reasons,  are  very  fre- 
quently sown  alone, 

Timothy  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  grasses.  It  stands  ship- 
ping best.  It  has  higher  adaption  to  the  needs  of  horses,  partly 
on  account  of  its  composition,  and  partly  because  of  its  freedom 
from  dust.     For  these  reasons  it  is  very  frequently  grown  alone. 


The  mow^ing  machine 

Russian  brome  grass  is  frequently  grown  alone  in  the  Dakotas 
and  the  northwestern  provinces  of  Canada,  because  of  its  high 
relative  adaption  to  the  conditions  found  there.  For  a  similar 
reason  western  rye  grass  is  sown  alone  in  the  same  areas,  and 
more  particularly  where  the  conditions  are  driest. 

More  commonly,  however,  hay  is  sown  in  mixtures.  The 
following  are  among  the  chief  reasons  for  sowing  it  thus: 

1.  Larger  yields  are  obtained, 

2.  Usually  such  hay  has  a  wider  adaption  for  feeding  than 
is  possessed  by  any  one  variety. 

•  3.  It  is  frequently  more  easily  cured  than  if  grown  alone. 
Experience  has  shown  that  in  growing  plants  in  certain  com- 
l)inations,  larger  yields  may  be  obtained  than  when  they  are 
grown  singly.  This  is  owing  to  the  fact,  doubtless,  that  in  mix- 
tures they  more  completely  occupy  the  soil,  and  to  the  further 
fact,  that  each  draws  most  heavily  on  its  own  proper  food  ele- 
ments in  the  soil,  hence  more  plant  food  is  appropriated  by  the 


FOR  UKTTKH  (JIlol'S 


125 


combination  than  could  be  appropriated  by  any  sinjj^le  plant. 
Because  of  the  difference  in  the  analysis  of  plants  thus  ^n-own 
together,  they  have  a  wider  adaptation  than  if  grown  alone. 
Timothy,  for  instance,  has  high  adaptation  for  horses,  but  low 
adaptation  for  sheep.  Clover  has  high  adaptation  for  sheep 
and  unless  when  entirely  free  from  dust,  low  adaptation  for 
horses;  whereas,  a  mixture  of  clover  and  timothy  answers  well 
for  almost  every  kind  of  feeding  to  the  domestic  animals  of  the 
farm. 

The  prejudice  against  a  limited  amount  of  bright,  well  cured 
clover  in  timothy  fed  to  horses,  is  not  well  founded.  When 
clover  is  grown  alone  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  cure.  When 
grown  along  with  such  grasses  as  timothy  or  orchard  grass,  it 
cures  more  quickly  and  easily,  since  the  curing,  or  rather  the 
keeping  qualities  of  the  clover  are  favorably  influenced  by 
admixture  with  grasses  which  cure  thus  quickly. 


A  typical  "Western  hay  field 


The  most  common  mixture  of  grasses  is  medium  red  clover 
and  timothy.  These  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  produce  hay  most 
desired  on  the  farm.  They  grow  well  together  on  the  same 
land.  The  timothy  helps  to  sustain  the  clover  and  the  clover 
improves  the  character  of  the  hay  for  feeding,  and  when  it  dies 
the  dead  roots  nourish  the  timothy.  In  such  a  mixture  clover 
will  predominate  the  first  season  of  harvesting  the  crop  for  hay, 
and  timothy  the  next  year. 

This  mixture  has  high  adaption  for  all  the  northern  states 
and  several  of  the  provinces  of  Canada,  also  for  certain  areas 
west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  in  the  irrigated  valleys  of  the 
Rockies.  In  these  areas  the  yields  may  be  improved  upon  by 
sowing  timothy,  medium,  mammoth,  and  alsike  clover  in  com- 
bination. 

In  the  central  states,  with  Kansas  as  a  center,  orchard  grass, 


126  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

meadow  fescue,  and  Russian  brome  grass  may  fig-ure  largelj'  in 
the  grasses  of  the  meadow. 

In  tlie  upland  areas  of  the  northern  plateaus  of  the  western 
mountains,  orchard  grass,  meadow  fescue,  Russian  brome,  and 
tall  oat  grass  have  given  satisfaction.  In  the  south,  one  of  the 
best  combinations  is  orchard  grass,  tall  oat  grass,  and  in  some 
instances  timothy. 

The  Legumes  as  Hay  Crops  —  Leguminous  crops  are  those 
that  produce  their  seeds  in  sacs  or  pods.  They  are  all  possessed 
of  the  power  to  draw  nitrogen  from  the  air  in  the  process  of 
growth  and  to  store  it  in  the  soil,  where  it  is  accessible  to  crops 
that  immediately  follow.  This  power  to  appropriate  nitrogen 
not  in  the  soil  is  doubtless  one  reason  why  legumes  are  so  rich  in 
protein.  Protein  is  the  element  in  foods  which  is  chiefly  used  in 
making  muscle  and  milk,  for  other  than  legumes  are  largely  used 


Cutting  a  heavy  stand  ol  timothy 

in  the  production  of  heat  and  energy.  Unless  these  foods  are  fed 
indue  balance,  animals  can  not  be  so  cheaply  grown,  so  perfectly 
grown,  or  so  well  maintained. 

Three  reasons  will  always  exist  for  the  growing  of  legumes. 
The  first  is  that  they  must  be  grown  if  foods  are  to  be  fed 
in  balance.  The  second  is  that  nature  unaided  does  not  furnish 
them  in  anything  like  the  same  abundance  as  it  furnishes  many 
of  the  grasses  proper.  The  third  is  because  of  the  great  service 
they  render  in  the  enrichment  of  the  land.  Of  so  much  account 
a,re  they  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  world  that  it  behooves  the 
farmer  to  give  special  attention  to  their  abundant  growth  in  the 
rotation. 

Young  animals,  especially,  must  be  abundantly  supplied  with 
muscle-making  material.  This  explains  why  the  clovers  furnish 
more  suitable  food  for  them  than  the  grasses  proper.     Likewise 


FOR  HKTTER  CROPS 


127 


cows  and  other  animals  which  provide  milk  can  not  do  so  in  the 
absence  of  liberal  supplies  of  protein.  This  explains  why  good 
clover  hay  is  better  adapted  for  milk  production  than  good  corn 
stover.  There  is,  of  course,  some  protein  in  grasses  and  coarse 
fodder,  but  there  is  not  enough  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  classes 
of  animals  named.  It  must  be  supplied  from  some  other  source, 
and  there  is  no  source  of  supply  so  cheap  ordinarily  as  that  which 
furnishes  protein  by  growing  it  on  the  farm. 

Kature  does  not  furnish  foods,  nitrogenous  in  character,  with 
anything  like  the  same  abundance  that  it  does  foods  that  are 
carbonaceous.  All  the  grasses,  many  of  which  take  possession  of 
the  soil  unaided  as  it  were,  are  relatively  low  in  protein  as  com- 
pared with  legumes.  Mature  covered  the  original  prairies  with 
grasses,  not  legumes.     When  the  forest  is  cut  away,  blue  grass 


The  hay  tedder 


comes  in  and  possesses  the  soil.  Nature  never  covers  the  land 
with  legumes.  The  nearest  approach  to  such  a  covering  is  found 
in  the  more  or  less  abundant  growth  of  wild  pea  vines  scattered 
amid  the  native  grasses,  and  particularly  on  lands  more  or  less 
covered  with  brush  in  the  American  and  Canadian  northwest. 

All  the  grains  which  grow  in  the  north  are  non-leguminous, 
except  peas,  vetches,  and  beans,  and  the  same  is  true  of  those  of 
the  south  except  cow  peas,  soy  beans,  and  velvet  beans. 

The  only  leguminous  root  crop,  strictly  speaking,  that  fur- 
nishes food  for  live  stock,  is  the  peanut.  All  the  coarse  fodders, 
as  corn,  sorghum,  and  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  are  non- 
leguminous.  True,  flax  in  the  north  and  cotton-seed  meal  in  the 
south  are  relatively  rich  in  protein.  So  are  the  by-products  of 
wheat,  as  bran  and  shorts,  but  none  of  these  is  a  legume.  Where 
live  stock  is  to  be  kept,  therefore,  the  need  is  imperative  for  grow- 
ing a  sufficiency  of  protein,  and  in  no  way  can  it  be  more  cheaply 


12S 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


furnished  than  by  growing  legumes,  and  more  especially  in  the 
form  of  hay. 

But  the  great  service  that  legumes  render  to  the  soil  furnishes 
an  important  reason  for  growing  them  freely.  Red  clover  grown 
on  soil  will  furnish  a  crop  of  hay  and  also  of  seed  in  one  season, 
and  will  leave  the  ground  richer  in  nitrogen  than  when  the 
crop  was  sown.  Peas,  vetches,  cow  peas,  and  soy  beans  may  be 
allowed  to  mature  and  the  vines  and  seed  may  both  be  removed 
and  yet  the  land  will  be  richer  in  nitrogen  than  it  was  previously. 
Should  alfalfa,  clovers,  and  the  other  legumes  mentioned  be  fed 
on  the  land,  it  will  be  apparent  that  the  process  will  exert  a 
favorable  influence  in  building  up  the  soil.  Of  course,  when 
these  crops  are  sold,  it  may  be  necessary  to  supply  the  soil  with 
additional  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 


The  hay-  rake 


Climatic  Adaptation  for  Legumes  —  While  legumes  of  one 
species  or  another  may  be  grown  in  all  the  states  of  the  Union, 
these  differ  greatly  in  their  adaptation  to  the  climatic  conditions. 

Alfalfa  has  more  general  adaptation  than  any  other  legume 
grown  on  this  continent.  It  can  be  grown  with  more  or  less 
success  in  portions  of  every  state  in  the  Union  where  the  soil 
conditions  are  right.  Although,  by  far,  the  most  abundant 
yields  are  obtained  from  it  when  grown  under  irrigation,  never- 
theless it  is  well  adapted  to  areas  that  have  but  little  humidity. 
It  may  be  grown  on  suitable  soils  where  the  rainfall  is  not  less 
than  10  inches  per  annum,  and  where  the  precipitation  averages  15 
inches,  good  crops  may  be  grown.  Without  any  irrigation,  these 
should  yield  on  an  average  not  much  less  than  two  tons  per  acre 
per  year.  This  means  that  alfalfa  will  be  the  principal  hay 
crop  through  all  time  for  all  the  region  west  of  the  Mississippi 
river,  and  east  of  the  Cascade  mountains. 


Foli  liETTHIi  Cliors  12f) 

The  three  leadinij^  varieties  of  clover;  viz.  the  common  red, 
the  inaininotli,  and  tlie  alsike,  all  grow  relatively  better  under 
humid  conditions  than  under  those  that  are  dry.  It  would 
seem  safe  to  say  that  clover  cannot  be  grown  at  its  best  when 
the  annual  precipitation  is  much  less  than  20  inches.  This 
means  that  in  the  absence  of  irrigation  these  clovers  will  not 
give  returns  equal  to  those  obtained  from  alfalfa  in  all  the  area 
which  lies  w^est  of  the  meridian  lOO**,  and  east  of  the  meridian 
120".  Crimson  clover  which  is  an  annual,  has  highest  adapta- 
tion for  the  Atlantic  and  southern  states.  Japan  clover  is 
frequently  grown  for  hay  in  the  southern  states,  but  the  yields 
obtained  from  it  are  relatively  small. 

Vetches  have  highest  adaptation  for  climates  that  are  moist. 
The  best  climatic  conditions,  therefore,  for  vetches  are  found 
on  the  Pacitic  slope  west  of  the  Cascades,  in  proximity  to  the 
great  lakes,  and  in  the  Atlantic  and  southern  states.  'No  better 
hay  crops  can  be  obtained  along  the  Pacific  coast  than  those 
obtained  from  vetches.  The  sand  vetch,  however,  will  grow 
relatively  better  with  but  moderately  humid  climatic  condi- 
tions. 

The  cow  pea  and  the  soy  bean  cannot  be  grown  at  their  best 
much  farther  north  than  the  parallel  40".  They  call  for  a 
longer  and  a  warmer  season  than  is  usually  found  north  of  the 
parallel  named,  but  they  can  be  grown  for  hay  much  farther  to 
the  north  than  for  the  grain.  Where  the  climatic  conditions 
become  less  favorable  for  the  growth  of  these  plants,  they  be- 
come more  favorable  for  the  growth  of  the  Canada  field  pea, 
which  grows  at  its  best  north  of  the  parallel  named. 

Soils  for  Producing  Hay  Crops — The  question  of  SOll 
adaption  in  growing  hay  is  one  of  great  significance.  A  grass 
or  clover  that  may  flourish  well  on  one  kind  of  soil  may  utterly 
fail  on  another.  Climate  adaption  is  also  important,  but  that 
has  already  been  touched  upon. 

The  highest  adaption  for  alfalfa  is  found  in  the  volcanic  ash 
soils  of  the  west.  These  are  more  or  less  sandy  in  character, 
and  if  they  are  underlaid  with  sheet  water  within  a  few  feet  of 
the  surface,  tlie  adaption  is  further  increased.  Kext  to  these 
come  clay  loam  soils  of  mild  texture  and  underlaid  with  clay 
not  dense  in  character.  Wet  and  marshy  lands  are  quite  un- 
suitable. On  many  soils  alfalfa  will  not  succeed  well  until 
inoculated  with  the  bacteria  essential  to  its  growth.  This  is 
most  easily  done  by  sowing  over  the  land  200  to  300  pounds  of 
earth  that  has  been  obtained  from  a  field  in  which  alfalfa  is 
growing  vigorously. 

Medium  red  clover  has  soil  adaption  a  good  deal  similar  to 
that  of  alfalfa,  but  it  will  flourish  in  a  shallower  soil,  as  it  feeds 
less  deeply,  and  also  in  a  soil  with  watery  saturation  which 


130  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

comes  nearer  ^to  the  surface.  Ked  clover  is  almost  certain  to 
grow  well  on  soils  that  will  produce  hard  wood  timber,  and 
usually  without  inoculation.  It  generall}^  grows  well  also  on  the 
average  prairie  soil  where  climatic  conditions  are  suitable,  but 
these  may  in  some  instances  require  inoculation  with  soil  taken 
from  a  field  in  which  red  clover  has  recently  been  grown,  or  is 
growing  when  the  soil  is  obtained  for  such  a  use. 

Alsike  clover  has  high  adaption  for  humus  soils.  It  will  suc- 
ceed well  in  situations  that  would  be  entirely  too  low  for  red 
clover  of  either  variety,  for  mammoth  clover  has  much  the  same 
adaption  as  medium  red  clover.  It  is  because  of  this  adaption 
for  humus  soils  that  alsike  clover  is  so  well  adapted  for  being 
grown  with  timothy,  as  well  as  because  the  two  mature  at  the 


Rating   a  heavy  crop  of  timothy 

same  time.  But  alsike  clover  will  also  grow  well  on  soils  with 
much  less  clay  in  them,  although  the  yields  from  these  will  not 
equal  the  yields  from  humus  soils. 

Timothy,  like  alsike  clover,  has  highest  adaption  for  humus 
soils,  providing  these  are  possessed  of  a  considerable  clay  content 
and  more  particularly  when  they  are  underlaid  with  clay. 
Timothy  will  also  grow  well  on  sandy  and  clay  loams,  particu- 
larly the  latter,  when  an  ample  supply  of  moisture  is  present. 
But  neither  timotliy  nor  alsike  clover  is  well  adapted  to  light 
lands  low  in  fertility,  and  especially  in  regions  where  the  rain- 
fall is  light. 

Red  top  grows  naturally  in  low  lands,  that  is,  it  grows  at  its 
best  in  these,  even  when  composed  of  peaty  muck.  In  such 
marshes  as  have  grown  wire  grass  before  they  were  drained,  red 
top  will  usually  possess  the  soils  when  the  waters  have  been 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  131 

removed.  But  red  top  will  also  grow  well  on  uplands  reasonably 
moist,  as  shown  by  its  behavior  in  New  England  when  grown  in 
conjunction  with  timothy,  and  in  several  of  the  states  of  the 
south,  in  which  it  is  a  factor  of  considerable  importance  in  grow- 
ing hay. 

Orchard  grass  will  grow  in  a  fairly  wide  range  of  soil.  It  has 
been  mostly  grown  on  certain  of  the  loamy  clays  of  New  England, 
the  stiffer  soils  of  Indiana,  the  reddish  clays  of  Tennessee  and 
other  states  of  the  south,  and  in  the  sandy  loam  soil  of  Idaho 
and  the  adjoining  states.  Orchard  grass  calls  for  soils  naturally 
moist,  but  not  wet. 

Russian  brome  grass  will  grow  in  soils  that  would  be  too  dry 
for  timothy  or  orchard  grass,  Vjut  it  does  not  grow  nearly  as  well 
relatively  on  dry  as  on  moist  soils.  It  has  high  adaption  for  the 
soils  of  western  and  especially  northwestern  prairies,  and  in 
many   localities    it  gives  yields  considerably    ahead   of   those 


The  side  delivery  rake 

obtained  from  timothy,  and  produces  hay  of  equal  feeding  value, 
ton  for  ton,  but  not  nearly  so  well  adapted  for  selling  in  the  open 
market. 

Western  rj'e  grass  grows  well  on  average  prairie  soils.  It  will 
grow  better  on  sandy  soils  under  dry  conditions  than  almost  any 
other  kind  of  grass.  It  will  flourish  under  conditions  that  would 
be  too  dry  even  for  Russian  brome,  but  of  course  it  will  give 
better  yields  where  the  soils  are  not  so  open  and  the  land  is  more 
moist.  The  hay  is  more  woody  than  that  of  timothy  and  brome 
grass. 

Tall  oat  grass  is  adapted  to  a  considerable  variety  of  soils, 
ranging  from  light  sandy  loams  to  clays  of  considerable  density, 
but  it  finds  most  congenial  conditions  in  loam  soils.  This  grass 
has  higher  adaption  to  the  central  and  far  western  states,  and 
to  areas  south  rather  than  north  from  these. 

Meadow  fescue  would  seem  to  have  nearly  the  same  adaption 


132 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


as  tall  oat  grass,  but  it  is  slower  in  taking-  a  firm  hold  upon  the 
soil  and  is  correspondingly  more  enduring.  It  has  been  grown 
with  much  satisfaction  for  ha}^  and  for  seed  in  Nebraska  and 
Idaho.  Peas  and  vetches  require  a  moist  but  not  a  wet  soil.  It 
should  also  be  more  or  less  clayey  in  texture.  The  conditions 
suitable  for  medium  red  clover  are  also  usually  suitable,  at  least 
in  a  fair  degree,  for  growing  Canada  field  peas  and  common 
vetches.  The  cow  pea  and  sand  vetch  will  grow  well  under  con- 
ditions less  favorable  to  growth,  as  where  the  soil  is  sandy  and 
relatively  low  in  fertility. 

The  soils  adapted  to  growing  grains  for  hay  are  virtually  the 
same  as  those  for  growing  them  for  the  grain,  but  with  the  dif- 
ference that  when  grown  for  hay,  grain  production  is  not  so  im- 
portant relatively  as  when  grain  is  the  principal  object  sought, 
and  straw  or  rather  hay  production:  that  is,  the  production  of 


The    s^^eep   rake 

stem  and  leaves  is  relatively  more  important.  Because  of  this, 
these  crops  may  be  sown  on  lower  soils  and  richer  in  vegetable 
matter  than  would  be  suitable  for  growing  them  at  their  best 
for  grain  production. 

Sorghum  and  kaflfir  corn  may  be  successfully  grown  for  hay 
on  any  kind  of  soil  that  will  produce  Indian  corn  in  good  form; 
that  is,  they  may  be  successfully  grown  on  any  good  sandy  or  clay 
loam  soil  where  the  climate  is  suitable.  In  almost  every  state  in 
the  Union  the  climate  is  suitable  for  growing  some  variety  of 
sorghum  into  hay,  but  kaffir  corn  requires  conditions  somewhat 
warmer.  The  central  Mississippi  states  have  highest  adaptation 
to  growing  such  hay. 


Sowing  Grasses  and  Grains  for  Hay  —  No  matter  what  the 
grass  or  grain  may  be  that  is  sown,  it  should  always  be  the  aim 
to  sow  on  soil  clean,  mellow  on  and  near  the  surface,  moist,  and 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  I.Vi 

firm.  These  conditions  may  usually  be  attained  by  the  proper 
preparation  of  the  land  previously.  They  are  most  rearlily 
secured  when  crops  for  hay  are  sown  after  those  that  liave  been 
cultivated  the  previous  season,  as  for  instance  crops  of  corn, 
sorgfhum  grown  for  syrup,  katlir  corn  grown  for  grain,  or  pota- 
toes, or  field  roots.  The  cultivation  given  to  those  crops  where 
such  cultivation  has  been  ample  furnishes  all  the  re(iuisite  con- 
ditions named  above.  Usually  the  preparation  that  should 
follow  such  crops  consists  of  disking  and  harrowing  rather  than 
plowing  and  harrowing,  but  of  course  to  this  there  are  some 
exceptions. 

The  best  time  for  sowing  many  of  the  grasses  is  the  early 
autumn,  but  they  also  may  be  sown  in  the  early  spring.  When 
thus  sown  they  are  not  so  well  able  to  endure  dry  weather  the 
summer  following.  In  all  northern  areas  they  may  be  sown  in 
the  spring,  and  the  same  is  true  of  alfalfa.  But  in  all  southern 
areas  these  may  be  sown  in  the  autumn. 

Alfalfa,  as  a  rule,  is  best  sown  in  the  early  autumn,  south  of 
parallel  40  degrees.  When  sown  northward  in  the  spring,  it 
should  not  be  sown  so  early  as  the  clovers.  As  these  are  more 
hardy  than  alfalfa,  the  aim  should  be  to  sow  tliem  very  early. 

In  moist  climates,  grasses  and  clovers  may  be  sown  any  time 
from  early  spring  to  early  autumn.  The  aim  should  be  not  to 
sow  such  grains  as  early  sorghum  and  katfir  corn,  until  the 
arrival  of  settled,  warm  weather,  and  the  same  is  true  of  cow 
peas  and  millet. 

Millet  in  several  varieties  is  frequently  grown  for  liay.  It 
yields  abundantly  on  prairie  and  slough  soils,  because  of  their 
richness  in  vegetable  matter,  and  since  it  will  mature  a  crop  in 
60  to  80  days  from  the  time  of  sowing,  it  is  often  sown  to  provide 
hay  w^hen  there  is  likely  to  be  a  shortage.  But  the  hay  though 
palatable  and  nutritious,  for  certain  reasons  should  be  fed  in 
connection  with  other  fodder. 

All  of  the  hay  plants  except  alfalfa  should  be  sown  broadcast 
or  on  the  broadcast  plan.  It  is  usually  better  to  sow  alfalfa 
with  the  grain  drill.  They  may  be  sown  by  hand  or  by  machinery. 
Both  the  grasses  and  clover  may  be  sown  by  hand-machines, 
strapped  to  the  body  and  turned  with  a  crank,  by  a  distributor 
wheeled  over  the  ground  like  a  barrow,  or  by  an  attachment  to 
the  grain  drill.  Usually  when  mixtures  of  grass  seed  are  sown 
they  are  mixed  and  sown  together.  But  this  way  may  not 
always  be  possible,  as  when  large  or  small  seeds  are  sown  to- 
gether. They  do  not  feed  out  evenly  in  such  instances,  hence  it 
may  be  necessary  to  sow  them  separately.  Timothy,  all  the 
clover  seeds,  and  alfalfa  grow  well  together.  All  grains  or  grain 
mixtures  may  be  best  sown  with  the  grain  drill.  The  same  is 
true  of  sorghum,  kaffir  corn,  and  even  millet,  though  all  these 
may  also  be  broadcast. 


134 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


Whether  the  grasses  and  clovers  should  be  sown  with  or  with- 
out a  nurse  crop  will  depend  largely  on  climatic  conditions.  A 
nurse  crop  is  of  course  a  crop  along  with  which  these  crops  are 
sown;  in  many  instances  at  the  same  time.  Usually  the  grass 
and  clover  seed  thus  sown  grow  without  doing  any  harm  or  any 
serious  harm  to  the  grain  crop  along  with  which  they  are  sown 
until  the  latter  is  harvested.  In  some  instances,  however,  the 
nurse  crops  overshade  the  ground  to  the  extent  of  smothering 
the  young  grass  or  clover  plants.  In  other  instances,  they 
smother  them  by  lodging,  and  in  yet  other  instances,  they  so 
weaken  them  by  drawing  on  the  moisture  in  the  soil,  that  the 
young  plants  perish  after  the  nurse  crop  has  been  harvested. 
But  usually  the  plan  is  good  which  sows  them  with  a  nurse  crop. 

Alfalfa  is  of tener  sown  alone  than  the  other  grass  and  clover 
seeds,  as  under  some  conditions  the   plants  are    benefited  by 


The  Jhay  loader  in  the  field 


being  cut  off  two  or  three  times  with  the  mower  during  the 
summer. 

The  best  nurse  crop  is  probably  barley,  as  it  does  not  grow  so 
tall  as  other  grains  and  occupies  the  ground  for  a  shorter  period. 
Next  to  barley  probably  is  speltz,  for  similar  reasons.  Then 
comes  rye,  which  does  not  stool  so  much  as  other  grains  and  is 
harvested  earlier,  thus  letting  in  sunlight  and  ceasing  at  an  early 
period  to  draw  moisture  from  the  soil.  After  rye  is  wheat,  of 
both  the  winter  and  spring  varieties.  After  wheat  comes  oats, 
lowest  in  adaptation  because  of  the  abundance  of  the  stool ing 
and  the  large  amount  of  the  leaf  growth.  But  oats  answer  well 
for  a  nurse  crop  when  they  are  grown  thinly  and  cut  for  hay  at 
the  heading  out  stage. 

In  some  instances  grass  and  clover  crops  are  sown  along  with 
certain  cereals  which  are  pastured  off  rather  than  reaped. 
Where  soils  are  over  porous,  and  the  climate  is  dry,  the  plan 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  135 

works  well,  as  in  western  areas  which  border  on  the  semi-arid 
region.  The  treading  of  animals  helps  to  make  the  land  Arm. 
The  grazing  removes  shade  too  dense  and  leaves  more  moisture 
for  the  young  plants.  Such  grazing  may  consist  of  any  of  the 
small  cereals,  or  better,  of  two  or  more  of  them  combined. 
Grass  seeds  may  thus  be  sown  with  rape  grazed  down,  or  with 
the  flax  which  is  to  be  harvested. 

The  depth  for  sowing  grass  and  clover  seed  will  depend  much 
on  soil  and  climatic  conditions.  On  loam  soils  where  the 
weather  is  moist  much  of  the  season,  grass  and  clover  seed  will 
not  of  necessity  require  other  covering  than  that  given  to  them 
by  allowing  them  to  fall  before  the  grain  drill  tubes,  or  rolling 
the  ground  when  they  are  sown  by  hand. 

In  other  instances,  as  where  the  conditions  are  dry,  they  will  be 
benefited  by  a  stroke  of  the  harrow  in  addition.  This  should 
always  be  given  when  they  are  sown  in  the  spring  along  with 
winter  rye  or  wheat,  but  under  some  conditions  it  may  not  be 
practicable  to  do  this.  Where  soils  are  so  light  and  spongy  as  to 
sink  much  beneath  the  tread,  it  may  be  wise  sometimes  to  sow 
the  grass  seeds  along  with  the  nurse  crop  and  to  feed  them  along 
with  it  through  the  grain  tubes. 

Sorghum  and  kaflfir  corn  and  also  millet  should  be  buried  from 
one  to  two  inches  deep  according  to  the  soil  and  its  condition  at 
the  time  of  sowing. 

The  amounts  of  seed  to  sow  will  vary  with  soil  and  climatic 
conditions  and  the  character  of  the  hay  sought.  Thick  sowing 
increases  fineness,  and  thin  sowing  coarseness.  In  some  instances 
the  conditions  are  so  dry  that  thin  sowing  is  imperative  to  give 
each  plant  enough  moisture. 

Should  the  clovers  be  sown  alone,  the  amounts  suited  to  average 
conditions  would  be:  alfalfa,  fifteen  pounds  per  acre,  and  in  the 
semi-arid  country  not  more  than  eight  pounds;  medium  red  or 
mammoth  clover,  twelve  pounds*  and  alsike  clover,  five  or  six 
pounds.  The  average  amount  of  timothy  or  red  top  to  sow  alone 
would  be  nine  pounds.  When  timothy  is  sown  with  one  or  more 
clovers,  the  average  amounts  may  be  fixed  at  —  timothy,  six 
pounds,  and  clover  or  the  clovers,  six  pounds  in  all.  This  last 
is  the  great  standard  hay  crop. 

Should  orchard  grass,  meadow  fescue,  tall  oat  grass,  Russian 
brome,  or  western  rye  g]-ass  be  sown  alone,  the  average  amount 
of  seed  may  be  fixed  at  fifteen  pounds  an  acre,  and  when  two  or 
three  of  them  are  sown  together,  proportionate  amounts  are 
sown.  It  is  of  course  to  be  understood  that  in  all  instances  these 
amounts  relate  to  the  growing  of  hay.  For  pasture  it  may  be 
necessary  to  sow  more  seed. 

When  timothy,  red  top,  and  alsike  clover  are  sown  to  provide 
permanent  meadow,  the  respective  average  amounts  of  seed  may 
be  set  down  at  six,  six,  and  three  pounds  of  each,  respectively. 


136  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

When  oats  are  sown  for  hay,  the  average  amount  of  seed 
sown  may  be  fixed  at  three  bushels  per  acre  in  humid  climates, 
but  the  quantities  should  be  reduced  with  decrease  in  humidity. 
Wheat  and  barley,  if  grown  without  irrigation,  should  not  be 
sown  in  greater  quantity  than,  say,  one  and  one-half  to  two 
bushels  an  acre.  Cowpeas  are  usually  sown  alone  for  hay  at  the 
rate  of  about  one  bushel  per  acre.  Oats  and  peas  are  commonly 
sown  at  the  rate  of  two  and  one-half  bushels  per  acre,  of  which 
the  proportion  of  peas  will  vary  from  one  to  one  and  a  half 
bushels  according  to  the  soil  adaption.  When  vetches  are  sown 
with  other  grain,  the  whole  amount  sown  may  be  put  at  two 
and  one-half  bushels,  of  which  one  bushel  or  more  is  vetches. 
Except  where  the  conditions  are  very  dry,  about  eight  bushels  of 
seed  is  sown  per  acre  in  order  to  make  the  hay  fine,  along  with 


The  'work  of  stacking  made  easy 


about  one  bushel  of  millet  seed.  When  grains  are  sown  in 
mixtures  and  pastured',  from  two  to  three  bushels  are  sown  and 
the  usual  amount  of  grass  and  clover  seeds. 

Harvesting  Hay — It  is  exceedingly  important  that  hay 
should  be  harvested  at  the  proper  season.  If  cut  too  early,  tiiere 
is  a  great  loss  of  nutrients  througli  loss  in  bulk  and  weight.  If 
cut  at  too  advanced  a  stage,  there  is  serious  loss  in  palatability, 
and  also  in  digestible  nutrients.  The  loss  from  undue  (delay  in 
cutting  is  least  from  crops  that  produce  only  one  cutting  in  the 
season,  and  greatest  from  those  that  produce  more  than  one. 
Alfalfa  and  medium  red  clover  are  of  the  last  named  class,  hence 
delay  in  cutting  one  crop  is  followed  by  serious  shrinkage  in  the 
next  crop  in  addition  to  the  loss  in  feeding  value  in  the  crop 
thus  cut  at  too  advanced  a  period. 


FOB  BETTER  CROPS  137 


The  best  stage  at  which  to  cut  alfalfa  is  when  it  is  coming 
into  bloom,  when  prol)ably  not  more  tiian  one-third  of  ih«3 
blooms  are  opened.  All  the  clovers  are  at  their  best  for  cutting 
when  approaching  or  at  full  bloom.  They  will  then  have  some 
heads,  not  many,  beginning  to  tint  brown.  If  cut  sooner  than 
the  period  named,  alfalfa  and  red  clover  will  be  hard  to  cure;  if 
cut  later,  there  is  likely  to  be  a  serious  loss  of  leaves  in  the 
curing  process,  and  leaves  are  the  most  nutritious  and  palatable 
portion  of  these  foods. 

Timothy  is  at  its  best  for  cutting  when  in  the  later  stage  of 
bloom,  that  is,  when  the  bloom  still  lingers  upon,  say,  one-third 
or  one-fourth  of  the  top  of  the  head.  If  cut  when  in  full  bloom, 
the  adherent  blossoms  make  the  hay  somewhat  dusty  when 
cured.  Red  top  should  be  cut  when  in  bloom,  and  the  same  is 
true  of  Russian  brome.  The  orchard  grass,  meadow  fescue,  tall 
oat  grass,  and  western  rye  grass  are  better  cut  in  the  early  stage 
of  bloom  than  later,  as  they  quickly  become  woody  and  so  lose 
rapidly  in  palatability.  This  is  particularly  true  of  orchard 
grass  and  western  rye  grass. 

When  hay  crops  are  grown  in  combination;  that  is,  when 
clovers  and  grasses  are  grown  together,  there  will  be  no  difficulty 
in  determining  the  time  at  which  they  should  be  cut  when  they 
mature  at  the  same  time.  Happily  this  is  true  of  mammoth 
and  alsike  clover,  timothy,  and  red  top.  The  best  time  for  cut- 
ting these  clovers  will  also  be  the  best  time  for  cutting  timothy 
and  red  top  which  grows  w^ith  them.  But  should  medium  red 
clover  and  timothy  be  grown  together,  the  difference  in  the  time 
of  maturing  is  from  two  to  three  weeks,  according  to  the  season. 
The  safe  rule  to  follow^  is  to  cut  at  the  best  time  for  making 
clover  hay,  when  tlie  clover  hay  predominates — as  it  usually  does 
the  first  year;  and  the  best  time  for  making  timothy  hay  when 
timothy  predominates— as  it  usually  does  the  second  year. 

The  best  stage  at  which  to  cut  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  for 
hay,  is  when  the  grain  is  in  the  dough  stage,  or  a  little  earlier 
with  wheat  and  barley:  as,  wlien  it  has  reached  the  milk  stage. 
This  will  be  indicated  by  yellow  appearance  in  the  stems  for  a 
few  inches  up  from  the  ground.  In  the  case  of  oats  there  will 
appear  a  slight  tint  of  yellow  on  some  of  the  heads  when  ready 
to  harvest. 

When  grains  are  sown  in  combination,  as  in  the  case  of  peas, 
vetches,  and  other  grains,  they  should  be  cut  wiien  the  bulk  of 
the  grain  in  the  dominant  crop  is  reaching  the  dough  stage. 

Cowpeas  are  ready  to  harvest  for  hay  when  a  considerable 
sprinkling  of  the  pods  have  begun  to  mature.  Sorghum  and 
kaffir  corn  should  be  allowed  to  reach  maturity,  or  nearly  so,  as 
then  they  contain  a  much  larger  amount  of  food  nutrients  than 
at  an  earlier  period.  But  they  should  in  all  instances  be  cut 
before  frost.    Millet  is  at  its  best  for  hay  when  the  crop  begins 


138 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


to  assume  a  yellaw  tint.  Cut  earlier,  it  will  be  lacking  in  bulk; 
later,  it  will  shed  seeds  freely. 

The  implements  for  cutting  hay  are  the  mower  and  the 
binder.  The  implements  for  curing-  are  the  tedder  and  the  horse- 
rake.  The  implements  for  storing  are  the  wagon,  hay  loader, 
hay  sweep  or  bull  rake,  the  horse  fork,  the  sling,  and  the  stacker. 
The  binder  is  only  used  for  cutting  grains  for  hay  alone  or 
mixed  sorghum,  kafifir  corn,  and  millet.  But  in  some  instances 
these  are  also  cut  with  the  mower.  When  cut  with  the  binder, 
the  sheaves  should  be  small  and  rather  loosely  bound  to  prevent 
them  from  moulding  underneath  the  band  in  the  airing  process. 

Alfalfa  and  clover  are  cured  by  the  same  method  in  climates 
possessed  of  normal  rainfall.    When  cut   with  the  mower,  the 


The  hay  baler 


hay  lies  on  the  ground  until  it  is  ready  for  being  raked.  This 
can  be  told  by  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  raked  clean  into 
windrows.  When  too  green  for  being  drawn  together,  bunches  of 
the  hay  will  fall  back  from  the  ends  of  the  rake  and  it  will  draw 
heavily.  The  drying  will  be  greatly  facilitated  by  running  the 
tedder  over  the  field  once  or  twice  within  a  few  hours  of  the 
cutting  of  the  crop,  or  at  least  the  same  day  when  the  hay  is 
cut  early  in  the  day.  The  side  delivery  rake  aids  in  the  quick 
drying  of  the  crop.  If  kept  unraked  until  browned  with  the 
sun,  the  loss  of  leaves  and  of  palatability  is  considerable,  espe- 
cially in  the  case  of  alfalfa. 

As  soon  as  raked,  the  hay  should  be  put  up  in  cocks,  not  wide, 
but  reasonably  high  to  complete  the  curing.  In  the  cocks  the 
hay  sweats,   and   usually  requires  two  days  to  complete  the 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  jsg 

curing.  It  is  then  drawn  and  stored.  In  showery  weather  it  is  a 
g-reat  advantage  to  have  the  cocks  covered  with  caps  of  rain- 
proof cloth,  weighted  at  the  corners.  These  are  kept  over  from 
year  to  year.  In  such  weatlier  it  may  be  necessary  to  open  out 
the  cocks  a  few  hours  before  drawing  the  hay. 

This  method  of  curing  makes  excellent  hay,  but  is  costly 
when  hay  is  made  on  a  larger  scale.  Because  of  this,  clover  is 
sometimes  cured  in  the  swath  and  windrow,  and  the  same  is  the 
common  metliod  of  curing  alfalfa  in  dry  areas.  The  plan 
answers  well  with  clover  well  sprinkled  with  timothy  when  the 
weather  is  good.  It  can  then  be  loaded  with  the  hay  loader. 
Cow  peas  are  cured  in  much  the  same  way  as  clover,  but  they  are 
even  more  ditficult  to  cure  in  good  form. 

The  grasses  proper  are  more  commonly  cured  in  the  swath 
and  windrow  than  in  the  cock.  They  cure  much  more  quickly 
than  the  clovers  and  alfalfa,  and  are  much  less  injured  by  rain. 
When  put  up  in  cock  they  also  turn  or  shed  rain  much  better 
than  the  clovers.  With  the  aid  of  the  tedder  it  has  been  found 
possible  to  cut  some  of  these  in  the  morning  and  to  store  them 
the  same  day.  Usually  in  good  weather  they  may  be  ?ut  one  day 
and  stored  the  next. 

When  grains  grown  alone  or  in  mixtures  are  cut  with  the 
mower,  they  are  harvested  in  the  same  way,  substantially  as 
grasses,  but  may  take  somewhat  longer  to  cure.  The  tedder 
should  also  be  used  on  these  with  more  caution  lest  the  hay  should 
be  soiled  with  earth.  In  locations  where  the  bundles  are  not 
liable  to  be  thrown  down  by  the  winds  when  cut  with  the  binder 
they  are  most  quickly  cured  in  long  shocks  in  which  the  sheaves 
are  set  up  in  pairs. 

When  sorghum  and  kafflr  corn  are  cut  with  the  binder,  after 
the  sheaves  have  lain  a  day  or  two  to  dry  the  butts,  they  are 
stood  up  in  round  shocks,  as  these  frequently  stand  for  weeks 
and  even  months.  These  shocks  are  tied  near  the  head  with  a 
band.  When  cut  with  the  mower  the  crop  may  lie  where  it 
fell  from  two  to  four  or  five  days.  It  is  then  raked  and  put 
up  into  large  cocks  and  fed  from  these  as  desired.  It  does  not 
readily  mould  in  these,  nor  does  it  take  injury  easily  from  rain. 
Millet  is  cured  in  best  form  like  clover,  but  it  is  more  commonly 
ciired  like  the  grasses. 

Feeding  Hay  on  the  Farm— Of  course,  the  question  as  to 
whether  hay  should  be  fed  to  live  stock  on  the  farm,  or  sold,  must 
be  determined  by  the  conditions.  These  are  such  as  touch  the 
relative  market  value  of  hay  and  meat,  the  needs  of  the  live  stock 
on  the  farm,  and  the  condition  of  the  soil  as  to  fertility.  There 
are  instances  when  it  is  justifiable  and  commendable  to  sell  hay. 
The  revenue  of  some  farms  is  in  great  part  or  entirely  from  the 
sale  of  hay  and  this  is  not  incompatible  with  the  maintenance 


140  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

of  fertility.  Everything-  depends  upon  the  way  in  which  the 
work  is  done. 

Whether  hay  should  be  fed  on  the  farm  will  depend  almost 
entirely  on  the  conditions.  It  may  pay  better  to  sell  timothy 
than  to  feed  it,  because  of  the  very  high  price  which  it  brings 
in  the  market.  Usually,  however,  it  will  pay  better  to  feed  hay 
from  legumes  on  the  farm.  It  does  not  bring  so  high  a  price 
relatively  as  timothy  in  the  market,  and  yet  it  is  more  valuable 
than  timothy  for  home  feeding,  except  in  the  case  of  horses. 
Alfalfa  in  the  range  country  is  now  frequently  sold  in  the  stack 
to  ranchmen,  who  feed  it  in  winter  to  the  cattle  and  sheep  which 
they  run  on  the  open  range  in  summer.  Such  hay  may  usually 
be  made  to  bring  a  much  higher  return  to  the  grower  who  will 
judiciously  turn  the  same  into  beef,  mutton,  wool,  or  pork  on 
the  ranch  which  produced  it.  But  of  course  there  are  condi- 
tions under  which  it  is  legitimate  to  sell  it. 

This  much  is  clear,  it  never  pays  the  farmer  to  let  his  stock 
go  backward  for  the  sake  of  selling  hay  at  a  high  price.  The 
policy  is  also  mistaken  which  sells  hay  from  a  farm  much  in 
need  of  fertility,  unless  the  price  is  such  that  it  will  justify 
selling  the  hay  and  buying  the  needed  fertility  in  the  form  of 
commercial  fertilizers. 

When  hay  is  fed  to  live  stock,  the  resultant  product  in  meat, 
wool,  milk,  or  labor,  is  only  a  part  of  the  farmer's  return.  He 
has  also  the  fertility  obtained  from  feeding  it.  It  is  common  to 
estimate  that  the  fertility  offsets  the  cost  of  labor  from  feeding 
the  hay.    Usually  it  is  worth  much  more  than  such  labor. 

It  should  be  observed  also  that  hay  composed  of  legumes  is 
usually  much  more  valuable  for  feeding  than  non-leguminous 
hay,  and  the  resultant  fertility  is  also  much  greater.  On  the 
other  hand,  non-leguminous  hay,  as  timothy  and  red  top,  is  most 
in  demand  in  the  markets  and  brings  the  highest  price.  If, 
therefore,  hay  is  to  be  sold  from  the  farm,  let  it  be  hay  that  is 
non-leguminous  in  character.  Such  hay  ships  much  better  than 
the  other,  since  it  breaks  less  while  being  handled.  For  some 
kinds  of  hay  there  is  virtually  no  market  off  the  farm  and 
probably  it  is  well  that  it  is  so,  as  they  can  be  utilized  so  well 
on  the  farm.    Such  are  sorghum  and  kaffir  corn  hay. 

Usually  it  pays  better  to  feed  hay  on  the  farm  than  to  sell 
it.  Where  it  does,  the  farmer  should  aim  so  to  stock  his  farm 
that  the  animals  on  the  same  will  consume  it  all.  The  great 
truth,  that  should  ever  be  remembered,  is  that  the  relation 
between  abundant  stock-keeping  and  high  values  of  land  and 
profits  from  it,  is  of  the  closest  possible  kind. 


The  Care   and   Protection   of  Farm 
Equipment 


By  M.  R.  I).  OwiNGS 

Advertising  .M:ina{fer,  International  Harvester  Company  (if  Ainorir-: 


Since  the  arrival  of  dollar  wheat,  seveiity- 
tive  cent  corn,  and  lifty  cent  oats,  editors, 
college  professors,  and  economists  have 
taken  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  in  speak- 
ing of  the  present  day  farmer  as  a  "  busi- 
ness man."  They  do  not  always  deline 
the  term  and  on  close  scrutiny  it  looks 
as  if  the  so-called  "business"  farmer 
is  such  sometimes  largely  because  high 
prices  of  his  products  have  made  him 
prosperous,  rather  than  because  of  his 
adoption  of  more  business-like  methods. 
It  has  been  well  depionstrated  that  a  real  business  man  is 
successful  as  a  manufacturer  in  so  far  as  he  is  able  to  make 
mechanical  labor  take  the  place  of  less  productive  hand  labor, 
and  that  a  real  business  man  as  a  farmer  is  similarly  successful 
in  so  far  as  he  can  do  the  same  thing. 

But  here,  very  often,  is  where  the  resemblance  ceases. 
The  manufacturer  invests  so  much  money  in  labor-saving 
machines,  he  allows  so  much  for  depreciation,  and  then  proceeds 
to  see  that  his  machines  are  well  housed,  well  cared  for,  and 
kept  going.  He  figures  that  they  must  pay  so  much  interest  on 
the  original  investment  plus  a  profit  sufficiently  large  to  equal, 
ultimately,  the  original  investment.  The  longer  the  machines 
can  fulfill  the  duties  for  which  they  were  intended,  the  greater 
the  money  returns  on  the  first  outlay. 

When  a  farmer  figures  on  the  same  basis  in  caring  for  his 
equipment,  the  economic  term  of  "businessman"  fits  him,  and 
generally  you  can  call  him  an  automobile  owner  as  well.  But 
when  he  invests  his  capital  in  expensive  machines— and  many 
of  them  — such  as  a  modern  farm  nowadays  necessitates,  and 
then  leaves  his  plow  in  the  fence  corner,  his  binder  in  the 
field,  and  his  new  wagon  under  the  eaves  of  his  cow  shed,  he 
falls  short  of  exercising  the  right  kind  of  business  methods. 

Perhaps  he  makes  enough  to  be  able  to  do  all  this  without 
noticing  the  drain  upon  his  gross  income.  Some  farmers  figure 
that  way,  but  it  is  not  good  commercial  doctrine. 

141 


142  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 


The  money  which  a  farmer  puts  into  a  binder,  mower,  or 
manure  spreader,  is  capital  invested  just  as  much  as  the  money 
another  man  puts  into  a  machine  for  making  shoes  or  spinning 
cotton.  It  deserves  an  annual  interest  and  an  ultimate  profit 
equally  as  much,  and  it  is  entitled  to  as  thorough  care  and  pro- 
tection. Furthermore,  the  laws  governing  continuity  of  service 
apply  exactly  the  same  to  a  cream  separator  and  a  wagon  as  to 
a  planer  or  grinder.  Of  course,  owing  to  the  seasonable  use  of 
farm  machines,  there  are  lapses  of  time  when  certain  machines 
must  remain  idle.  It  is  at  this  period  that  they  should  be  best 
protected.  Scientists  say  that  the  muscles  of  an  arm  wither 
more  quickly  from  inactivity  than  from  over-activity.  The  same 
thing  is  true  of  equipment,  whether  on  the  farm  or  in  the  fac- 
tory. More  plows  have  been  worn  away  by  the  weather  than  were 
ever  worn  away  by  service. 

True  as  this  is,  very  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
science  of  machine  care.  Experimental  stations  will  work  for 
years  to  show  how  to  grow  forty  bushels  of  wheat  where  only 
thirty  bushels  grew  before.  No  one  questions  the  usefulness  of 
this  work,  but  it  takes  the  difference  of  a  good  many  acres  to 
pile  up  enough  dollars  to  buy  anew  binder;  and  yet,  very  little 
time  is  spent  in  showing  how  to  increase  the  life  of  a  binder  from 
five  to  ten  years  Perhaps  they  leave  it  to  the  common  sense  of 
the  farmer.  If  they  do,  all  right,  for  common  sense  is  really  the 
thing  that  is  needed. 

College  instruction,  ancestral  advice,  and  original  research  in 
the  care  of  farm  machines  can  all  be  simmered  down  to  these 
three  elementary  necessities  — good  roofs,  good  paint,  and  good 
lubricants.  These  three  determine  whether  the  days  of  a  ma- 
chine shall  be  long  in  the  land  or  whether  it  shall  soon  return 
to  the  dust  whence  it  came  and  another  order  go  to  the  firm 
who  made  it. 

Let  every  farmer  attend  to  this  trio.  How  and  when  are 
questions  which  each  must  answer  for  himself  —  not  very  pro- 
found questions,  but  very  important. 

Few  people  realize  how  simple  and  yet  how  essential  such 
care  is,  and  for  those  who  have  overlooked  this  phase  of  agricul- 
tural life,  we  give  the  experience  of  one  successful  Kentucky 
farmer  which  may  contain  helpful  suggestions. 

This  man  ran  a  big  farm  in  that  state  and  in  spite  of  ineffi- 
cient help  and  long-used  soil,  made  money.  He  was  a  firm 
believer  in  the  above  mentioned  triumvirate,  and  he  practiced 
what  he  believed.  Back  of  his  barn  he  had  erected  a  long,  low 
shed,  not  particularly  showy  nor  expensive,  but  dry,  and  under 
this  shed  he  kept  everything  in  the  equipment  line  —  from 
grindstone  to  wagons.  In  one  end  he  built  a  home-made  impro- 
vised paint  shop.  Although  his  reputation  as  a  family  man  in 
that  country  was  good,  it  is  said  of  him  tliat  he  would  just  as 


IIIII'.IMII  II  I  I  I   I  I  II  Ml  IMIIIIIJ  II  III  I  I  I  I  IMIIIIIIi  n  ■■  .^ 


1.11  iiii.i.i.ij.i.i.r.r.M  1 1 1 ' I ' ' ' 

"  '"^"^1  Mil  I  I.I  II 


m^''":" 


Front   Elevation 


SLIDE     DOOR 


5PACE    FOR  WaQOH 

AowER,  Binder,  and 
Disc  Harrow 


OPE.W  Space 


DOUBLE  DOORS 


Space  for  Buqqy 

AND  ^uTOMOBiuE 


uTOMOBiuE  T, 

t.    SPREADER 


T 


[paint  cupboard 


1-1       I 


WorkSkop 


Work  Bench. 


N— ^ 


_.i 


I2'-©- 


I  St.  I  D  E       Door)        , 
■>M S'-O  — 


34 -O". 


\  \Z<-  6- 
< 


Ground    Tloor   Plan 

Plan  for  building  the  machine  shed 


143 


Si  DL  Elevation 


Sect/on  ON  Line    A-A 


Scale  'U\  I  Foot 


Sketch  of  Farm  Machinje  5hed 
I  li  C    Service   Bureau 
International  Harvester  (3  of  America 


FOR  BETTER  CHOI'S  145 


soon   leave    a   meiiiher  of  his  family  oiitsid«i  all   wintt-r  as  hi- 
mower  or  his  drill. 

When  he  tinished  his  plo^^in^,^  he  saw  to  it  that  liis  men 
hrou^ht  the  plow  back  to  the  shed.  lie  then  went  over  it 
thorou'rhly  with  a  coat  of  white  lead,  and  it  was  left  that  way 
all  winter.  In  tlie  sprini^  a  little  kerosene  or  tiirp<'ntine  was 
applied  which  loosened  th'e  paint  so  that  with  the  first  contact 
with  the  t^round  the  share  came  out  smooth  and  shiny  like  a 
mirror. 

''That  plow,"  said  the  Ketituckian,  '-cost  me  $30.0(1  The 
paint  cost  thirty-five  cents,  and  it  made  the  i)low  last  several 
years  longer. 

"That  is  just  an  illustration,'"  continued  he,  '-of  my  procedure 
with  every  machine  I  own.  Every  two  years  I  make  it  a 
point  to  g-o  over  the  binders,  mowers,  and  all  the  machines  I 
have  on  the  place  with  a  good  metal  base  paint.  I  take  off  the 
binder  canvasses,  roll  them  up,  and  put  them  out  of  the  w^ay  of 
the  mice.  I  grease  the  sickles  of  the  mowers  and  binders,  wrap 
them  up.  and  put  them  away  in  a  dry  place.  Then  when  I  have 
occasion  to  use  these  machines  I  put  the  sickles  back  in  place, 
and  before  the  first  circuit  of  the  field  is  completed  they  are  as 
bright  and  shiny  as  when  new. 

'"Perhaps  also  the  question  of  pride  helps  a  little,  because  I 
always  like  to  have  everything  about  the  farm  clean  and  bright. 
I  generally  use  red  paint  because  I  like  that  color,  and  because 
red  lead  is  better  than  white  lead  for  outside  work.  I  keep  even 
the  tongues  and  whiffletrees  of  my  wagons  as  good  as  new. 
They  are  mostly  made  of  locust  in  our  country,  and  when  prop- 
erly painted,  last  a  century. 

"This  painting  is  not  just  a  hobby;  I  have  found  that  it  pays. 
One  time  I  sold  a  binder  which  I  had  used  steadily  for  six  years, 
for  over  two- thirds  of  what  it  cost  me,  and  I  didn't  cheat  the 
fellow,  either.    It  was  practically  as  good  as  new. 

"I  am  a  paint  advocate  alright,  and  it  seems  to  me  that 
hired  men  may  come  and  hired  men  may  go,  but  my  wagons, 
mowers,  and  drills  go  on  forever. 

'•I  don't  use  up  all  this  paint  because  I  feel  more  friendly 
toward  the  paint  manufacturers  than  I  do  toward  the  Interna- 
tional Harvester  Company  of  America.  It  is  merely  a  matter 
of  economy  with  me  because  paint  is  cheaper  than  new  machines. 

"  I  am  even  more  cranky  on  the  lubricants.  You  know  the 
parts  of  a  binder,  for  instance,  that  are  subject  to  wear  are  the 
chains,  the  gears,  the  boxes,  and  knotter.  Painting  won't  help 
these,  but  plenty  of  oil  will.  When  I  first  started  farming  the 
most  important  bit  of  barn  furniture  was  the  oil  can.  I  make 
it  a  rule,  after  each  long  trip,  to  grease  my  w^agons.  w  ith  the 
result  that  they  are  always  ready  and  always  ship-shape.  I 
invent  patent  dust  protectors  of  my  own  when  none  come  with 


246  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

a  machine,   and  where  this  is  not  possible  I  keep  the  exposed 
parts  well  cleaned. 

"  Now  all  of  this  may  seem  rather  unimportant  to  some  farm- 
ers, or  they  may  think  it  a  great  deal  of  trouble  for  nothing, 
but  I  never  notice  the  trouble  and,  in  the  long  run,  I  find  that 
it  is  a  good  form  of  economy.  I  farmed  for  many  years,  at  a 
time  when  prices  were  much  lower  than  they  are  now,  and  I 
made  my  farm  pay.  I  do  not  claim  that  it  was  all  due  to  my 
caring  for  my  equipment,  but  the  fact  that  I  have  made  every 
cent  of  capital  invested  in  mslJfihines  return  100  cents  on  the 
dollar,  and  then  some,  has  had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  my 
prosperity." 


Farm  Machines  and  Progress 


By  J.   E.  Buck 

Of  the  I  H  C  Service  Bureau 


The  Staff  of  Life— The  origin  of  wheat 
is  unknown.  It  is  at  least  as  old  as  civil- 
ization, and  was  probably  used  as  food  by 
our  primitive  ancestors  long  before  they 
emerged  from  the  obscurity  of  the  ages. 
For  more  than  forty  centuries  the  golden 
cereal  has  been  the  staff  of  life  of  civil- 
^^^  ized  nations.  In  the  advancement  of 
^^^^  .^^H  human  welfare,  no  cereal  has  been  more 
jfljjri^^LI^^^^^H  instrumental  than  wheat.  It  has  de- 
■HBfl^fl^HBI  veloped  the  mechanical  ingenuity  and 
other  intellectual  faculties  of  man. 
Without  wheat,  farms  would  be  abandoned,  cities  would  crumble 
into  ruin,  and  civilization  would  perish. 

From  a  bulletin  compiled  by  Miss  Helen  W.  Atwater  for  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  we  learn  that  probably  no  food,  un- 
less it  is  milk,  is  more  generally  used  than  bread,  nor  is  there 
any  food  that  constitutes  a  larger  part  of  the  diet  of  the  average 
person.  In  the  earliest  historical  records  it  is  spoken  of,  and 
wild  tribes  which  today  inhabit  South  Africa  know  something 
of  its  use.  Of  course,  the  bread  made  by  the  Kafir  to-day,  or  by 
the  American  Indian  three  hundred  years  ago,  is  very  different 
from  that  with  which  we  are  familiar.  The  Kafir  simply  grinds 
his  grain  between  two  stones,  makes  a  paste  of  this  meal  and 
water,  and  bakes  it  in  the  ashes  of  his  camp  fire.  Israel,  in 
Egypt,  ate  leavened  bread ;  the  ancient  Greeks  cultivated  the 
yeast  plant;  in  Pompeii  an  oven  was  found  containing  loaves  of 
bread  not  unlike  that  of  the  present  day;  many  European  peas- 
ants still  bake  their  weekly  loaves  in  the  village  oven,  and  so 
on,  to  the  mammoth  bakeries  and  innumerable  fancy  breads  of 
modern  times.  The  reason  for  this  importance  of  bread  is  very 
simple.  Ever  since  the  far-off  days  when  the  wild  cereals  were 
first  found  or  cultivated,  men  have  known  that  food  prepared 

*Maps  Nos.  1  and  2  show  the  value  of  agricultural  machines  in  use  in  1360  and 
in  1900,  and  maps  Nos.  3  to  9  inclusive  show  the  production  of  wheat  in  the  United 
States  by  decades,  beginning  with  1840. 

The  number  of  farms  increased  from  1,500,000  in  1850,  to  6,000,000  in  1909.  and  the 
total  area  under  culti\iation  increased  during  the  same  period  from  293.000,000 
acres  to  700,000,000  acres.  The  population  of  the  United  States  has  increased 
from  4,000,000  in  1790,  to  90,000,000  in  1910. 

147 


Iitiplements  and  Farm  Machines  in  1860 
Each  Dot  Represents  S30,000  Worth  of  Farm  Machines 


I 


From  -Agricultural  Production  in  the  U.  S.  since  mar  in  preparation  by 
Henry  0.  Taylor  and  John  Lee  Coulter,  with  the  financial  assistance  of  the  Carnegie 
Institution  of  Washington,  D.  C.    All  rights  reserved. 


FOR  BETTER  CROPS  149 


from  them  would  support  life  and  strength  better  than  any 
otlier  single  food  except  milk.  Although  in  this  country  the 
ease  with  which  other  foods  can  be  obtained  makes  bread  seem 
less  important,  there  are  many  districts  of  Europe  and  Asia 
where  it  is  still  the  "staff  of  life,"  and  where  when  people  pray 
for  their  daily  bread,  they  mean  it  literally. 

Even  in  the  United  States  bread  plays  a  more  important  part 
than  many  realize.  Statistical  investigations  which  have  ])een 
conducted  by  the  government  indicate  that  at  present  the 
annual  per  capita  consumption  of  wheat  in  the  United  States 
is  about  4i  bushels,  which  represents  not  far  from  a  barrel  of 
flour,  and  there  are  reasons  to  suppose  that  this  amount  is 
increasing. 

The  Early  Struggle  for  Bread — During  the  first  seventy 
years  of  our  national  life,  our  abundant  resources  failed  to  bring 
us  any  great  increase  in  commerce  or  in  the  products  of  agricul- 
ture, trades,  and  industries.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the 
virgin  soil  was  practically  free  to  the  settler,  our  production  of 
wheat  was  insufficient  to  supply  our  people  with  bread,  and  the 
little  that  was  imported  was  taken  from  the  mouths  of  the 
poor.  In  the  beginning  of  the  century  just  past,  but  thres  per 
cent  of  the  people  of  America  lived  in  cities;  the  remainder 
lived  on  the  farms  and  in  small  towns,  and  were  dependent 
upon  agriculture  for  food;  there  was  little  manufacturing— the 
people  were  dependent  upon  the  mother-country  for  almost 
everything  except  the  products  of  the  soil.  It,  therefore,  will 
seem  a  surprising  statement  when  it  is  said  that  the  people  in 
the  United  States  as  late  as  1845  did  not  raise  enough  wheat  for 
their  bread.  In  that  year  only  4^  bushels  per  person  were  raised 
in  the  United  States,  while  in  the  year  1800,  5i  bushels  per  per- 
son were  raised.  We  had  during  the  first  half  of  the  century 
no  factories  such  as  employ  thousands  of  hands  to-day,  and  our 
cities  were  mere  villages;  therefore,  it  is  no  wonder  that,  with  a 
population  in  the  United  States  that  had  quadrupled  since  1800, 
enconomists  were  alarmed  at  the  failure  of  the  food  supply  to 
keep  pace  with  our  rapid  increase  in  population.  It  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  the  limit  of  food  production  with  the  sickle 
had  been  reached. 

Increase  in  Production  of  Food — About  the  middle  of 
the  last  century  there  was  a  remarkable  change  in  the  food- 
producing  power  of  the  American  people.  From  a  low  rank 
among  nations,  we  have  advanced  to  the  highest  position,  with 
a  producing  power  in  agriculture  and  manufacture  that  almost 
equals  that  of  all  Europe.  The  source  of  this  remarkable  aug- 
mentation in  our  enconomic  power  is  the  result  of  invention — 
invention  of  agricultural  machines.  Our  food  supply  increased 
decade  by  decade  from  4.33  bushels  of  wheat  per  person  in  1849, 


Implements    and  Farm    Machines  in  1900 
Each  Dot  Represents  $30,000  Worth  of  Farm  Machines 


From  '^Agricultural   Production   in  the  U.  S.  since  1840^  in  premration  bv 

wZ/^ J'^^i  w"""/'-  '^f ""  ^^'  2^"'^''''  "^'^^^  the  financial  assistance  of  the  Carnegie 
Institution  of  Washington,  D.  G.    All  rights  reserved. 


150 


FOR  BKTTia:  vlKtl'S  157 

to  5.50  bushels  in  1859,  to  7.45  bushels  in  1869,  and  to  10  bushels 
per  person  in  1891.  In  1900  the  per  capita  production  of  wheat 
decreased  to  seven  bushels,  but  increased  to  nine  bushels  in  1W9. 
Surprising  as  these  statements  are,  they  tell  only  half  the 
story.  From  the  97  per  cent  of  people  on  the  farm  in  18(XJ,  the 
number  decreased  to  80  per  cent  in  1859,  and  in  19(X)  to  3.3  per 
cent;  the  farms  to-day,  therefore,  with  less  than  one-third  of  the 
labor  of  the  country,  are  producing  sulHcient  not  only  to  feed 
the  people  upon  them,  but  also  the  67  per  cent  that  live  in  the 
cities,  and  export  a  considerable  tonnage  of  food  supplies.  This 
showing  is  most  marvelous,  and  has  been  made  possible  only  by 
the  genius  of  the  American  inventor,  and  the  intelligence  and 
energy  of  the  American  farmer.  In  all  the  history  of  the  world 
this  achievement  stands  out  beyond  comparison.  Much,  of 
course,  has  been  due  to  the  fertile  soil  of  the  great  plains  and 
valleys  in  which  we  live;  much  to  the  beneficent  government 
that  has  given  security  to  property  and  by  its  patent  system  has 
encouraged  invention;  much  to  the  great  railroads  which  have 
transported  our  products  across  the  continent;  but  more  is  due 
to  that  body  of  inventors  who  recognized  the  necessity  of 
improved  methods  on  the  farm,  and  who  have  provided  that 
intelligent,  progressive,  and  energetic  body  — the  farmers  of 
America  —  with  machines  which  have  enabled  them  to  produce 
food-stuffs  more  cheaply  than  in  any  other  land  under  the  sun, 
thereby  enabling  them  to  sell  their  products  in  the  markets  of 
the  world  in  competition  with  the  penny-a-day  laborers  of  India 
and  China. 

Advancement  in  Agricultural  Methods  —  Wonderful  as  has 
been  the  progress  made  in  other  fields  of  effort  during  the  last 
half  century,  the  greatest  forward,  strides  have  been  made  in 
agriculture — and  this  unprecedented  development  is  due  almost 
wholly  to  the  numerous  ingenious  improvements  made  in  agri- 
cultural implements  and  machines  since  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  We  all  know  how  important  a  part  modern 
farm  machines  played  in  the  industrial  progress  of  the  United 
States,  but  many  are  prone  to  accept  it  in  too  much  of  a  matter- 
of-fact  way  — prone  to  forget  the  many  years  of  unremitting 
toil  required  to  build  the  foundation  upon  which  we  now  rest 
so  securely. 

Industrial  Emancipation  — The  nineteenth  century  was  as 
conspicuous  for  its  industrial  as  for  its  political  emancipation. 
Its  history  cannot  be  adequately  written  without  taking  note  of 
its  industrial  progress,  the  abolishment  of  many  of  the  more 
burdensome  forms  of  toil,  and  the  multiplication  of  the  effective- 
ness of  labor  by  supplying  mechanical  servants  to  replace  human 
bondsmen. 

The  struggle  for  deliverance  from  the  tyranny  of  despotic 


152  FOR  BETTER  CROPS 

government,  and-the  struggle  for  deliverance  from  the  tyranny 
of  despotic  nature,  are  manifestations  of  the  same  craving  after 
independence  and  individual  sovereignty.  There  is  a  close  kin- 
ship between  the  spirit  which  combats  the  arbitrary  authority 
of  man  over  man,  and  the  spirit  which  seeks  to  establish  the 
mastery  of  man  over  material  agents.  Free  institutions  do  not 
quench  man's  intuitive  ambition  for  power;  they  rather  tend  to 
substitute  a  different  object  for  that  ambition  — power  to  serve 
the  race  instead  of  power  to  oppress  it — power  to  invent  mechan- 
ical agents  instead  of  power  to  enthrall  human  agents— conquest 
over  nature  rather  than  conquest  over  mankind. 

When  it  began  to  be  recognized  that  the  authority  which 
kings  had  for  centuries  exercised  under  the  solemn  awe  of 
"divine  right"  rested  rather  upon  the  ignorance  and  subser- 
vience of  their  subjects,  it  was  natural  to  inquire  whether  the 
fetters  which  nature  seemed  to  have  placed  on  primitive  man 
might  not  yield  to  his  intelligence,  whether  he  might  not  domi- 
nate each  and  make  its  force  responsive  to  his  commands 
through  the  instruments  which  his  will  should  summon  into 
action  and  direct  to  his  service.  The  complete  realization  of 
man's  independence  required  that  inanimate  substitutes  should 
supplant  the  liberated  slave  or  serf  in  the  irksome  and  menial 
tasks.  So  long  as  food  and  raiment  and  whatever  contributes  to 
sustenance,  cultivation,  and  development,  are  procurable  only 
through  the  unaided  toil  of  the  individual,  each  is  limited  to  the 
most  meager  necessaries  of  life.  Facilities  for  education  and 
refinement,  and  the  leisure  which  they  require,  were  in  centuries 
past  possible  only  through  the  forced  servitude  of  the  many  to 
the  few.  The  inventor  of  machines  prepared  the  way  for  politi- 
cal emancipation  and  deserves  to  share  the  honor  which  is  freely 
accorded  political  liberators.  He  has  multiplied  artificial  ser- 
vants until  the  average  citizen  to-day  enjoys  the  service  of  a 
corps  of  mechanical  slaves  more  efficient,  more  capable,  and 
more  subservient  to  the  will  of  the  master,  than  the  gangs  of 
human  chattels  which  served  the  planters  of  the  South  fifty 
years  ago,  or  the  retinue  of  vassals  that  ministered  to  the  barons 
of  medieval  Europe. 

We  little  realize  the  extent  to  which  we  are  served  by  mechan- 
ical servants,  the  extent  to  which  they  relieve  man  from  the 
more  burdensome  forms  of  physical  toil,  and  promote  him  to  a 
sphere  where  his  mental  faculties  rather  than  his  physical 
strength  measure  his  earning  capacity.  If  we  were  to  banish 
the  labor-saving  machines  which  invention  has  provided,  we 
would  abandon  civilization  and  reduce  ourselves  to  a  condition 
far  more  intolerable  than  that  of  the  primitive  savage,  for  we 
should  have  his  limitations  imposed  upon  the  craving  and  aspira- 
tion to  which  he  was  a  stranger.  An  invention,  such  as  the 
reaping  machine,  which  blazed  the  trail  to  higher  achievement, 


FOR  BETTER  (JliOJ'S 


Ids 


is  more  ijiiportant  than  many  of  the  dynasties  wiiich  have  been 
conspicuous  in  history.  Some  inventors  whose  names  tiie  world 
seldom  mentions  have  left  a  more  potent  and  endurin^^  impress 
upon  subsequent  history  than  the  famous  heroes  of  battle  or 
statecraft. 

The  Ever-Present  Problem  — The  opinion  that  the  wonder- 
ful wealth  and  commerce  of  the  United  States  have  sprunj^ 
entirely  from  our  natural  resources  has  found  a  too  common 
acceptance  among  our  people.  As  we  think  of  the  increasing 
population  and  the  higher  cost  of  living,  we  realize  that  the 
ever-present  problem  of  mankind  has  been  to  obtain  food.  The 
massacre  of  tribes  and  the  marching  of  armies  have  had  the 
obtaining  of  food  as  their  inspiration.  There  has  been  no  great 
progress  in  the  world  where  food  was  not  plenty.  The  impor- 
tance, therefore,  of  the  food  producer  in  the  world  is  manifest, 
and  the  honor  due  to  those  who  have  done  most  to  assist  in 
securing  a  bounteous  food  supply  is  too  often  forgotten. 


Wheat  Production  in  the  United    States, 
1866—1910 

The  following  figures  show  the  production  of  wheat  in  the 
United  States  by  years  beginning  with  18ti6  and  ending  with 
1910,  as  compiled  by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture: 


Year 

BrSHELS 

Year 

Bushels 

Year 

Bushels 

1866 

151,999,906 

1881 

388,280.090 

1«96 

427.684,340 

1867 

212,441.400 

IS82 

504.185,470 

1897 

530.149,168 

1868 

224,036,600 

1883 

421,086.1H0 

1898 

675,148.705 

1869 

260,146,900 

1884 

512.765,000 

1899 

547,303.846 

1870 

235.884,700 

1885 

357,112.000 

1900 

522.229,505 

1871 

230,728,400 

1886 

457.218.000 

1901 

748,460.218 

1872 

249.997,100 

1887 

456,329.000 

1902 

670.063,008 

1873 

281,254.700 

1888 

415,868,000 

1903 

637.821,835 

1874 

308.102,700 

1889 

490,560,000 

1904 

552.399.517 

1875 

292.136,000 

1890 

399.262,000 

1905 

692,979,489 

1876 

289,356.500 

1891 

611,780.000 

1906 

7^5.260,970 

1877 

364.194,146 

1892 

515.949,000 

1907 

634,087.000 

1878 

420.122,400 

1893 

396,131.725 

1908 

664,602,000 

1879 

448,756,630 

1894 

460,267.416 

1909 

735.0(10,000 

1880 

498.549,868 

1895 

467,102.947 

1910 

691,769,000 

Wheat  Production  in  1840 

Kach  Dot  Represents  50,000  Bushels.     Of  the  total  crop  of  84,000,823, 

the  four  states  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  New^  York,  and  Virginia 

gre^v^  more  than  one-half 


From  ^'Agricultural  Production  in  the  TI.  8.  since  1840,"  in  preparation  by 
Henry  0.  Taylor  and  John  Lee  Coulter,  toith  the  financial  assistance  of  the  Carnegie 
Institution  of  Washington,  D.  C.    All  rights  reserved. 


154 


Wheat  Prodiirliou  la   18.">0 

ISole  that  the  Wheat   Helt   In  iiiovinii  wextwanl   into   Michiiian, 
IllinoiH,   and   WiHCoiiNin 


From  ''Agricultural  Productions  in  the  U.  S.  since  1840."  in  preparation  by 
Henry  C.  Taylor  and  John  Lee  Coulter,  ivith  the  financial  assistance  of  the  Carnegie 
Institution  of  Washington,  D.  C.    All  rights  reserved. 

155 


Wheat  Production  in  1860 

The  Central  States,  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Wisconsin,  were  leading  in 

Wheat  Production,     The  total  crop  of  the  country  was  173, 105,000 

bushels,~or  more  than  twice  as  much  as  that  of  1840 


From  "Agricultural  Production  in  the  U.  S.  since  1840.-'  in  preparation  by 
Henry  C.  Taylor  and  John  Lee  Coulter,  with  thejlnancial  assistance  of  the  Carnegie 
Institution  of   Washington,  D.  C-    All  rights  reserved. 


Wheat  Production  in  1S70 

Stated   arc-   Urowinii    ahont   th-  Hame   Bmonnt   tha( 


Whereas    the  E-tern    State.   «-   "-ir,,.";'  Welter n  Sta.e.  hav. 


157 


?»S<*or.r'V'aTi.,T;"3:  cr7«  r^A..  ««r.«d. 


Wheat  Production  in  1880 
Wheat  Growing  is  moving  westward  into  Kansas  and  Nebraska 


From  ^^Agricultural  Production  in,  the  U.  S.  since  1840^  in  preparation  by 
Henry  C.  Taylor  and  John  Lee  Coulter,  ivith  the  financial  assistance  of  the  Carnegie 
Institution  of  Washingtou,  D.  C    All  rights  reserved. 


158 


Wheat  Production  iii   ISJM) 

Minnesota    and    the    DnkotaB  are  now  the   leading  Wheat  Slate-: 
California  also  ia  jlrowinii  iariie  crupH 


From  ^^Agricultural  Production  in  the  U.  S.  since  lS4or  in  preparation  by 
Henry  C.  Taylor  and  John  Lee  Coulter,  with  the. financial  assistance  of  the  Carnegie 
Institution  of  Washington,  D.  C.    All  rights  reserved. 

159 


Wheat  Production  in  1900 

Minnesota  and  North  Dakota  have  become  the  leading  Wheat  Growing 

States.     These  two  states  alone  produced  nearly  twice  as  much 

as  the  total  crop  gro^^n  in  this  country  in   1840 


From  ''Agricultural  Production  in  the  U.  S.  since  1840,"  in  preparation  by 
Henry  (■'.  Tai/lor  and  John  Lee  Coulter,  with  the  financial  assistance  of  the  Carnegie 
Institution  of  Washington,  D.  C\    All  rights  reserved. 


160 


11  !|^^^    ,#,    l5S^-^-.  o 


The  I-H-C  Line  includes: 
CHAMPION  •  DE BRING  •  MCCORMICK 
MILWAUKEE  •  OSBORNE  •  PLANO  ^  ^ 
HARVESTING  6> HAYING  MACHINES  6>  TOOLS 

TILLAGE     IMPLEMENTS 
KEYSTONE  SHELLERS,  HAY  LOADERS,  RAKES 

GASOLINE  ENGINES.  HAY  PRESSES, 

FEED  GRINDERS,  AUTO    WAGONS.  AUTO 

BUGGIES, AUTOMOBILES  AND  ROADSTERS 

DAIRYMAID  AND  BLUEBELL  CREAM 

HARVESTERS,  CORN  KING,  CLOVERLEAF 

&  KEMP  20"-^  CENTURY  MANURE  SPREADERS, 

WEBER, COLUMBUS,  NEW  BETTENDORF 

&  STEEL  KING  WAGONS,  BUCKEYE 

6- STERLING  FARM  TRUCKS, 

THRESHERS,  BINDER  TWINE 


INTERNATIONAL  HARVESTER 
COMPANY  OF  AMERICA 

CHICACO    USA 


